Reading can be categorised as cyclic,intensive and extensive .Lets take a review of these categories which the teacher can employ to help children to develop their reading skills.
Cyclic reading is a system the teacher can divide the children into small groups of 5 or 6 with each group is given a unique task supported by reading materials These may be as follows:
•core reading
•aloud reading to an audience
•dictionary work
•comprehension exercise
•extensive reading
•reading for information enrichment using newspapers,pamphlets,magazines ,internet etc.
Cyclic reading is effective provided the materials are available and suitable for their level and achieve all the objectives set.
Groups rotate from from one activity to another as they can familiarise with all programmes and can devote three periods per week.
Intensive reading is more of comprehension execise using a text from any source which can be use with well constructed questions which help children to understand the text they read.It is only by outside free reading they can extend their knowledge of the language level and reinforce their lesson reading learning, by reading various reading sources and reference materials.
Extensive reading is suitable when the materials for reading and the content suit the cognitive level of the learners and is more convenient to language capability than the current published textbook. Extensive reading can be organised as one activity among athers in cyclic reading.
31 October 2010
Cyclic ,Intensive and Extensive Reading.
Reading can be categorised as cyclic,intensive and extensive .Lets take a review of these categories which the teacher can employ to help children to develop their reading skills.
Cyclic reading is a system the teacher can divide the children into small groups of 5 or 6 with each group is given a unique task supported by reading materials These may be as follows:
•core reading
•aloud reading to an audience
•dictionary work
•comprehension exercise
•extensive reading
•reading for information enrichment using newspapers,pamphlets,magazines ,internet etc.
Cyclic reading is effective provided the materials are available and suitable for their level and achieve all the objectives set.
Groups rotate from from one activity to another as they can familiarise with all programmes and can devote three periods per week.
Intensive reading is more of comprehension execise using a text from any source which can be use with well constructed questions which help children to understand the text they read.It is only by outside free reading they can extend their knowledge of the language level and reinforce their lesson reading learning, by reading various reading sources and reference materials.
Extensive reading is suitable when the materials for reading and the content suit the cognitive level of the learners and is more convenient to language capability than the current published textbook. Extensive reading can be organised as one activity among athers in cyclic reading.
Cyclic reading is a system the teacher can divide the children into small groups of 5 or 6 with each group is given a unique task supported by reading materials These may be as follows:
•core reading
•aloud reading to an audience
•dictionary work
•comprehension exercise
•extensive reading
•reading for information enrichment using newspapers,pamphlets,magazines ,internet etc.
Cyclic reading is effective provided the materials are available and suitable for their level and achieve all the objectives set.
Groups rotate from from one activity to another as they can familiarise with all programmes and can devote three periods per week.
Intensive reading is more of comprehension execise using a text from any source which can be use with well constructed questions which help children to understand the text they read.It is only by outside free reading they can extend their knowledge of the language level and reinforce their lesson reading learning, by reading various reading sources and reference materials.
Extensive reading is suitable when the materials for reading and the content suit the cognitive level of the learners and is more convenient to language capability than the current published textbook. Extensive reading can be organised as one activity among athers in cyclic reading.
The Presentation of Lesson on Development of Listening Skills.
Listening in most cases is regarded as a passive skill ,which is not given time in classroom activities as teacher thought it can be taught in conjunction with other skills like speaking ,reading and writing . yet listening is the backborne of all these skills to develop language skills for a child to be fluent in communication both orally and in writing.
When teaching language the item of new words should be introduced . This should come first because developing language based on the vocabulary which pupils need to develop in sound as they may have problem in mispronunciation of new words ,sentence structure or functional context.
The lesson progressions should be first presentation followed by practice and then reinforcement .During all the stages ,the teacher should always find way out to introduce vocabulary items so that pupils can understand more clearly.
Let now get into situation where the teacher is now make a lesson presentation on the words :hard ,soft ,flufy and smooth.
The media the teacher can use are balls . Now the teacher talk of the two balls presented in the lession :
"Now lets all of us look and listen.
Look at these balls.''
Someone to come upfront to take the ball.
Now look at this white ball feel it its soft and fluffy. The yellow ball is Hard and Smooth.The use of all sense is essential for children to make lession live and more interesting children should be allowed to touch ,feel it and master the words being used to describe the object.
When presenting inifinitive of purpose:
I am going to the breaktime to have a cup of tea.
I am now pack my book to left my table tidy.
I am opening windows to let in some fresh air.
The teacher is speaking and doing as being said using the objects ,new words should be used more frequently ,whilst children listen ,watch and learn.
Then now at this stage children should be involve in sorts of activities to apply the concepts .
The teacher may read the statement and children listen to statements and respond with true or false.
In a week there are 10 days /false
In a week there are 7 days /true
Remmber lesson to be based on activities commonly done by children to capture their attention from what they know most.
We oftently go to church on Tuesdays /false
We should wash our hands under running water before we eat /true
The teacher should make the statement more clearly only once to promote concentration from children.
Following of instructions is a concept of listening which shall help children even when writing tests or use roads. The teacher should give children four instructions whilst they listen carefully and then follow them.
•write numbers 1-4 DOWN THE LINE OF THE PAGE.
1 write your name.
2 the name of your school.
3 the name of your country
4 write :where do you live?
On number its not a question to be answered but to write the questions as being said.
Children can mime or act as the teacher give instructions
"wash your face"
"run on the same spot"
"brush your teeth"
The other interesting topic in listening is story telling.The teacher should read or tell the story while children listen. The use of motivational stimulus ,thus use of gestures ,changes in voice projections ,rhythmic movement ,use of facial expressions help children to follow the story with interests.
Check comprehnsion as frequently ask questions from the story.Children should also asked to retell the story ,write the summary or discuss in groups.
They can also complete the story on their own.
Another way of developing listening skills is through use of dictation which we are not going to discuss in detail.
When teaching language the item of new words should be introduced . This should come first because developing language based on the vocabulary which pupils need to develop in sound as they may have problem in mispronunciation of new words ,sentence structure or functional context.
The lesson progressions should be first presentation followed by practice and then reinforcement .During all the stages ,the teacher should always find way out to introduce vocabulary items so that pupils can understand more clearly.
Let now get into situation where the teacher is now make a lesson presentation on the words :hard ,soft ,flufy and smooth.
The media the teacher can use are balls . Now the teacher talk of the two balls presented in the lession :
"Now lets all of us look and listen.
Look at these balls.''
Someone to come upfront to take the ball.
Now look at this white ball feel it its soft and fluffy. The yellow ball is Hard and Smooth.The use of all sense is essential for children to make lession live and more interesting children should be allowed to touch ,feel it and master the words being used to describe the object.
When presenting inifinitive of purpose:
I am going to the breaktime to have a cup of tea.
I am now pack my book to left my table tidy.
I am opening windows to let in some fresh air.
The teacher is speaking and doing as being said using the objects ,new words should be used more frequently ,whilst children listen ,watch and learn.
Then now at this stage children should be involve in sorts of activities to apply the concepts .
The teacher may read the statement and children listen to statements and respond with true or false.
In a week there are 10 days /false
In a week there are 7 days /true
Remmber lesson to be based on activities commonly done by children to capture their attention from what they know most.
We oftently go to church on Tuesdays /false
We should wash our hands under running water before we eat /true
The teacher should make the statement more clearly only once to promote concentration from children.
Following of instructions is a concept of listening which shall help children even when writing tests or use roads. The teacher should give children four instructions whilst they listen carefully and then follow them.
•write numbers 1-4 DOWN THE LINE OF THE PAGE.
1 write your name.
2 the name of your school.
3 the name of your country
4 write :where do you live?
On number its not a question to be answered but to write the questions as being said.
Children can mime or act as the teacher give instructions
"wash your face"
"run on the same spot"
"brush your teeth"
The other interesting topic in listening is story telling.The teacher should read or tell the story while children listen. The use of motivational stimulus ,thus use of gestures ,changes in voice projections ,rhythmic movement ,use of facial expressions help children to follow the story with interests.
Check comprehnsion as frequently ask questions from the story.Children should also asked to retell the story ,write the summary or discuss in groups.
They can also complete the story on their own.
Another way of developing listening skills is through use of dictation which we are not going to discuss in detail.
Teaching and Learning of Environmental Science
Education is now populary regarded as selection of culture.Curriculum planners had also realised the need to teach young children the importance of their environment in their life.According to the importance of our physical environment it is wise to explore why it is necessary to let children learn about their surroundings.
In the eary inception of Zimbabwe formal education the teaching and learning of environment was known as nature study.Lessons were mostly taught inside the classroom ,using teaching and learning aids like pligrams,charts,dead materials from dead animal.In the topic of animals pupils would be asked to draw animals and label the only ,even in higher grades.
The classrooms were entitled to have a nature corner/place which were put shells ,dead plants animal skeletons and other bones collected from the environment.
By 1990 the Germany Organisation initiated workshops on how best can environment science taught in the elementary/primary schools.The recommendations from these workshops among other things change the subject from nature study to Environmental Science.The theme of the newly designed syllabus is to do and participate.In other words learners should not just told what is in their environment ,but rather they should go into environment and find the relevant facts whilst actively participating in the lesson.
Environmental science is an integrated subject which encompasses all other taught subjects which include languages,social science,mathematics and moral studies.
The main aims and goals of the environmental science is to let pupils be aware of themselves ,environment as they focus on the five levels of knowledge which:
Basic Scientific Knowledge
Pupils acquire basic scientific knowledge
Comprehension
After acquired the knowledge of science ,then should understand to it,for example how cholera develops.
Application of Ideas
apply the knowledge and able to classify.In this case they are applying ideas.
Analysis
When they gathered facts should be able to analyse the classified and understood facts.They are sorting,comparing or analysing.
Synthesis
Pupils will be able to design /create and construct.
The methodology of environmental science is mainly child centred as learners are interacting with the teacher ,among themselves and their environment.
There should be a lot of demostrations ,experimentations,project work,problem solving,games,case study ,drama,discussions and fieldtrips.
The Science Process Skills
These are activities by learners to investigate a science phenomenon use to explore a particular topic or concept.Process skills are grouped into three distinct categories:
1.The Basic Science Process Skills
Pupils are observing,counting ,describing or explaining as they should be able to ask insightful questions.
2.Intermediate Process Skills
Learners are instructed to draw what they had observed .They also measure ,compare ,infer or conclude.
3.Abstruct or Complex Skills
Learners are now involved in the estimations ,hypothesizing ,create questions from every problem and make their own judgements and predictions.
Determinants of Process Skills
The topic to be taught ,lesson objective and what is wanted to be understood by learners.The teacher should take into consideration the cognitive level of the learners and whether the class is a mixed or else.
The teacher should develop the lessons fron known to unknown and the lesson should be mainly child centred ,hands on approach as learners are freely allowed to use all their senses ,touching ,seeing,feeling ,hearing and smelling.Let the learners compare ,measure until they form a concept.
Importance of Environment as laboratory/Media.
Environmental science is absolutely effective if taught using mainly outdoor lesson.Start from the classroom and then go outside.
Organisms such as animals and plants must be studied in their natural habitat.
It is unecessary to let pupils collect organism such as nests,leaves or bones to the classroom ,just teach them there so that they develop an awareness of the importance of environment to their life.
Unless the collection is very necessary ,don't destroy the environment,after use return the specimen to its original setting .
Suggestions for a Successful outdoor lesson
•Study the environment.
•Prepare all needed materials for the lesson before the lesson.
•Divide the class into smaller groups and train group leaders to lead other carefully.
•Give clear instructions as your introduction
•Give diversified exercises for different groups to do.
•Learner schould carry their notebooks,recorders or camera and let them discover for themselves and avoid telling them the answers.
•Teacher should be an active listener and guide.
•Show interes and enthusiasm in the lesson.
•Avoid disturbing natural environment.
•Check weather before letting go go outdoor lesson.
•Ask pupils to evaluate ,judge,conclude and consider themselves.
•Teacher should make follow -ups on children's reports.
In the eary inception of Zimbabwe formal education the teaching and learning of environment was known as nature study.Lessons were mostly taught inside the classroom ,using teaching and learning aids like pligrams,charts,dead materials from dead animal.In the topic of animals pupils would be asked to draw animals and label the only ,even in higher grades.
The classrooms were entitled to have a nature corner/place which were put shells ,dead plants animal skeletons and other bones collected from the environment.
By 1990 the Germany Organisation initiated workshops on how best can environment science taught in the elementary/primary schools.The recommendations from these workshops among other things change the subject from nature study to Environmental Science.The theme of the newly designed syllabus is to do and participate.In other words learners should not just told what is in their environment ,but rather they should go into environment and find the relevant facts whilst actively participating in the lesson.
Environmental science is an integrated subject which encompasses all other taught subjects which include languages,social science,mathematics and moral studies.
The main aims and goals of the environmental science is to let pupils be aware of themselves ,environment as they focus on the five levels of knowledge which:
Basic Scientific Knowledge
Pupils acquire basic scientific knowledge
Comprehension
After acquired the knowledge of science ,then should understand to it,for example how cholera develops.
Application of Ideas
apply the knowledge and able to classify.In this case they are applying ideas.
Analysis
When they gathered facts should be able to analyse the classified and understood facts.They are sorting,comparing or analysing.
Synthesis
Pupils will be able to design /create and construct.
The methodology of environmental science is mainly child centred as learners are interacting with the teacher ,among themselves and their environment.
There should be a lot of demostrations ,experimentations,project work,problem solving,games,case study ,drama,discussions and fieldtrips.
The Science Process Skills
These are activities by learners to investigate a science phenomenon use to explore a particular topic or concept.Process skills are grouped into three distinct categories:
1.The Basic Science Process Skills
Pupils are observing,counting ,describing or explaining as they should be able to ask insightful questions.
2.Intermediate Process Skills
Learners are instructed to draw what they had observed .They also measure ,compare ,infer or conclude.
3.Abstruct or Complex Skills
Learners are now involved in the estimations ,hypothesizing ,create questions from every problem and make their own judgements and predictions.
Determinants of Process Skills
The topic to be taught ,lesson objective and what is wanted to be understood by learners.The teacher should take into consideration the cognitive level of the learners and whether the class is a mixed or else.
The teacher should develop the lessons fron known to unknown and the lesson should be mainly child centred ,hands on approach as learners are freely allowed to use all their senses ,touching ,seeing,feeling ,hearing and smelling.Let the learners compare ,measure until they form a concept.
Importance of Environment as laboratory/Media.
Environmental science is absolutely effective if taught using mainly outdoor lesson.Start from the classroom and then go outside.
Organisms such as animals and plants must be studied in their natural habitat.
It is unecessary to let pupils collect organism such as nests,leaves or bones to the classroom ,just teach them there so that they develop an awareness of the importance of environment to their life.
Unless the collection is very necessary ,don't destroy the environment,after use return the specimen to its original setting .
Suggestions for a Successful outdoor lesson
•Study the environment.
•Prepare all needed materials for the lesson before the lesson.
•Divide the class into smaller groups and train group leaders to lead other carefully.
•Give clear instructions as your introduction
•Give diversified exercises for different groups to do.
•Learner schould carry their notebooks,recorders or camera and let them discover for themselves and avoid telling them the answers.
•Teacher should be an active listener and guide.
•Show interes and enthusiasm in the lesson.
•Avoid disturbing natural environment.
•Check weather before letting go go outdoor lesson.
•Ask pupils to evaluate ,judge,conclude and consider themselves.
•Teacher should make follow -ups on children's reports.
Vocabulary Development in Children
Before go through this article first ask yourself 'why teach /learn vocabulary?'
The rationale of teaching vocabulary is to make pupils familiarise with words and phrases .The promotion of comprehension in children is enhanced by their vocabulary capability.When they write articles or short stories they can able to use different words in different situations . Children will increase pressure and success in reading and they also enlarged their minds to new ideas.
The approaches a teacher can adopt in teaching vocabulary includes:
(A)Language experience which requires to integrate life's experience with new vocabulary . There are four types of vocabularies that can be employed:
(1)The name for familiar experience of reference ,for instance a child swim in the bay ,but not know what is it called here the emphasis in teaching will focus primarily in the utilisation of words recognition. This is usually the situation for beginner readers. The terms may be familiar but pronunciation and identification of words are unfamiliar..
(2)Expanded meaning for a familiar references. This particular important for words for feelings like abstract words freedom .The emphasis on teaching is on exposure on different situations .
(3)Additional names for a familiar reference involve learners' experiences through senses. They explain ,describe ,make comparisons and contrast with known things ,experiences and works.For example pupils say cheetah ,make comparisons with a cat. The teacher should avoid teaching a word in isolation use verbal context even when you have to give a meaning of isolated words. Immediately use it in an illustration this helps pupils to understand word usage. The teacher and pupils can discusss meaning and give meanings related to the words. Then children should be allowed to use words in context and pronounce these words.
(B)Semantic approach is to comprehend the meaning and it is not necessarily what the word stand for only ,but also its relationship with other words in the language. Semantic networks extend children's background which in turn increases comprehension.
In the semantic webs ,the teacher chooses one or two keywords from an experience and then brainstorm children to know what comes to mind when they hear the words. Children thereafter may write the association individually or they write in groups. for example the word {FEAR}They can come up with words like fear of places,things,death ,war ,hunger,backgrounds,examinations ,friendships and so on.
The semantic feature analysis is categorise words grasped in a certain features. This can be done on chart as it shows similarities and difference among the words.
(C)Alternatively pupils can brainstorm all the related ideas and words after a discussions and other activities pupils can then add other related words.
{OCEAN} found in water ,ships ,fish ,beach etc.
There some useful which we left which include word trees and word forks all if employed in the teaching and learning situation of developing vocabulary in children they greatly benefit out of it.
The rationale of teaching vocabulary is to make pupils familiarise with words and phrases .The promotion of comprehension in children is enhanced by their vocabulary capability.When they write articles or short stories they can able to use different words in different situations . Children will increase pressure and success in reading and they also enlarged their minds to new ideas.
The approaches a teacher can adopt in teaching vocabulary includes:
(A)Language experience which requires to integrate life's experience with new vocabulary . There are four types of vocabularies that can be employed:
(1)The name for familiar experience of reference ,for instance a child swim in the bay ,but not know what is it called here the emphasis in teaching will focus primarily in the utilisation of words recognition. This is usually the situation for beginner readers. The terms may be familiar but pronunciation and identification of words are unfamiliar..
(2)Expanded meaning for a familiar references. This particular important for words for feelings like abstract words freedom .The emphasis on teaching is on exposure on different situations .
(3)Additional names for a familiar reference involve learners' experiences through senses. They explain ,describe ,make comparisons and contrast with known things ,experiences and works.For example pupils say cheetah ,make comparisons with a cat. The teacher should avoid teaching a word in isolation use verbal context even when you have to give a meaning of isolated words. Immediately use it in an illustration this helps pupils to understand word usage. The teacher and pupils can discusss meaning and give meanings related to the words. Then children should be allowed to use words in context and pronounce these words.
(B)Semantic approach is to comprehend the meaning and it is not necessarily what the word stand for only ,but also its relationship with other words in the language. Semantic networks extend children's background which in turn increases comprehension.
In the semantic webs ,the teacher chooses one or two keywords from an experience and then brainstorm children to know what comes to mind when they hear the words. Children thereafter may write the association individually or they write in groups. for example the word {FEAR}They can come up with words like fear of places,things,death ,war ,hunger,backgrounds,examinations ,friendships and so on.
The semantic feature analysis is categorise words grasped in a certain features. This can be done on chart as it shows similarities and difference among the words.
(C)Alternatively pupils can brainstorm all the related ideas and words after a discussions and other activities pupils can then add other related words.
{OCEAN} found in water ,ships ,fish ,beach etc.
There some useful which we left which include word trees and word forks all if employed in the teaching and learning situation of developing vocabulary in children they greatly benefit out of it.
The Teaching and Learning of Mass and Weight.
There are some problems encountered by pupils in learning of mass and weight in both secondary and primary schools.
According to the ordinary person in the community ,mass and weight are identical. But actually mass and weight are not the same.However, there are ways of dealing with mass and weight that can help pupils to understand the concepts more clearly.The problems in mathematics and sciences for both pupils and teachers is mainly caused by initially telling learners that mass and weight are the same.
Mass is the amount of matter a body has and is related to number of atoms in that body. Mass is measured in milligrams,grammes ,kilogrammes and tonnes.
Weight is the force exerted by a body via gravity. It is measured in Newtons.
(weight =mass multipled by gravity)
Bare in mind that at times we may be weightless but not massless!
Pupils should be aware that weight changes ,but mass remain constant ,for example an object in hand you feel weight but not its mass.
We may use balance or spring scale to measure weight. The gravity pulls the body downwards .
But the major problems is that most of these weighing instruments are calibrated in mass units.Hence many people frequently say ,'I weigh 70 kgs' Remember we said weight is measured in Newtons . Will this be what the street persons say?So what are we teaching these people.
One of the best ways to clarify this controversy is to use mass balance in schools . Teachers can collect wooden coat hanger ,fishing line or string and two wide shallow ,plastic containers.
All materials are usually readily available and the construction is simple. A counter-balance of plasticine (stiki-stuff) may be needed.
Children compare masses using the balance ,since gravity acts on both pans ,we are not measuring forces but comparing masses of the objects. Even if you use a so-called weight ,for example 10 kg ,this is really a mass so pupils can compare two objects.
Children should used to make statements like:
'This object has the same mass as one of the 20kg'
'The brick weighs the same as a mass of 2kg (ie .the brick has a mass of 2kg)
In this way the children are demostrated the equivalence.
Moreover the children may use three or more objects to compare .The teacher can direct them to write statements of transitivity. (order) .For example Lee is greater than Tom and Tom is greater that Madelene. Lee must be greater than Madelene.
Weight and mass have always been difficult to teach clearly . The effort to distinguish between the two at an elementary stage worth making for the sake of children in future.
According to the ordinary person in the community ,mass and weight are identical. But actually mass and weight are not the same.However, there are ways of dealing with mass and weight that can help pupils to understand the concepts more clearly.The problems in mathematics and sciences for both pupils and teachers is mainly caused by initially telling learners that mass and weight are the same.
Mass is the amount of matter a body has and is related to number of atoms in that body. Mass is measured in milligrams,grammes ,kilogrammes and tonnes.
Weight is the force exerted by a body via gravity. It is measured in Newtons.
(weight =mass multipled by gravity)
Bare in mind that at times we may be weightless but not massless!
Pupils should be aware that weight changes ,but mass remain constant ,for example an object in hand you feel weight but not its mass.
We may use balance or spring scale to measure weight. The gravity pulls the body downwards .
But the major problems is that most of these weighing instruments are calibrated in mass units.Hence many people frequently say ,'I weigh 70 kgs' Remember we said weight is measured in Newtons . Will this be what the street persons say?So what are we teaching these people.
One of the best ways to clarify this controversy is to use mass balance in schools . Teachers can collect wooden coat hanger ,fishing line or string and two wide shallow ,plastic containers.
All materials are usually readily available and the construction is simple. A counter-balance of plasticine (stiki-stuff) may be needed.
Children compare masses using the balance ,since gravity acts on both pans ,we are not measuring forces but comparing masses of the objects. Even if you use a so-called weight ,for example 10 kg ,this is really a mass so pupils can compare two objects.
Children should used to make statements like:
'This object has the same mass as one of the 20kg'
'The brick weighs the same as a mass of 2kg (ie .the brick has a mass of 2kg)
In this way the children are demostrated the equivalence.
Moreover the children may use three or more objects to compare .The teacher can direct them to write statements of transitivity. (order) .For example Lee is greater than Tom and Tom is greater that Madelene. Lee must be greater than Madelene.
Weight and mass have always been difficult to teach clearly . The effort to distinguish between the two at an elementary stage worth making for the sake of children in future.
The Teaching and Learning of Mass and Weight.
There are some problems encountered by pupils in learning of mass and weight in both secondary and primary schools.
According to the ordinary person in the community ,mass and weight are identical. But actually mass and weight are not the same.However, there are ways of dealing with mass and weight that can help pupils to understand the concepts more clearly.The problems in mathematics and sciences for both pupils and teachers is mainly caused by initially telling learners that mass and weight are the same.
Mass is the amount of matter a body has and is related to number of atoms in that body. Mass is measured in milligrams,grammes ,kilogrammes and tonnes.
Weight is the force exerted by a body via gravity. It is measured in Newtons.
(weight =mass multipled by gravity)
Bare in mind that at times we may be weightless but not massless!
Pupils should be aware that weight changes ,but mass remain constant ,for example an object in hand you feel weight but not its mass.
We may use balance or spring scale to measure weight. The gravity pulls the body downwards .
But the major problems is that most of these weighing instruments are calibrated in mass units.Hence many people frequently say ,'I weigh 70 kgs' Remember we said weight is measured in Newtons . Will this be what the street persons say?So what are we teaching these people.
One of the best ways to clarify this controversy is to use mass balance in schools . Teachers can collect wooden coat hanger ,fishing line or string and two wide shallow ,plastic containers.
All materials are usually readily available and the construction is simple. A counter-balance of plasticine (stiki-stuff) may be needed.
Children compare masses using the balance ,since gravity acts on both pans ,we are not measuring forces but comparing masses of the objects. Even if you use a so-called weight ,for example 10 kg ,this is really a mass so pupils can compare two objects.
Children should used to make statements like:
'This object has the same mass as one of the 20kg'
'The brick weighs the same as a mass of 2kg (ie .the brick has a mass of 2kg)
In this way the children are demostrated the equivalence.
Moreover the children may use three or more objects to compare .The teacher can direct them to write statements of transitivity. (order) .For example Lee is greater than Tom and Tom is greater that Madelene. Lee must be greater than Madelene.
Weight and mass have always been difficult to teach clearly . The effort to distinguish between the two at an elementary stage worth making for the sake of children in future.
According to the ordinary person in the community ,mass and weight are identical. But actually mass and weight are not the same.However, there are ways of dealing with mass and weight that can help pupils to understand the concepts more clearly.The problems in mathematics and sciences for both pupils and teachers is mainly caused by initially telling learners that mass and weight are the same.
Mass is the amount of matter a body has and is related to number of atoms in that body. Mass is measured in milligrams,grammes ,kilogrammes and tonnes.
Weight is the force exerted by a body via gravity. It is measured in Newtons.
(weight =mass multipled by gravity)
Bare in mind that at times we may be weightless but not massless!
Pupils should be aware that weight changes ,but mass remain constant ,for example an object in hand you feel weight but not its mass.
We may use balance or spring scale to measure weight. The gravity pulls the body downwards .
But the major problems is that most of these weighing instruments are calibrated in mass units.Hence many people frequently say ,'I weigh 70 kgs' Remember we said weight is measured in Newtons . Will this be what the street persons say?So what are we teaching these people.
One of the best ways to clarify this controversy is to use mass balance in schools . Teachers can collect wooden coat hanger ,fishing line or string and two wide shallow ,plastic containers.
All materials are usually readily available and the construction is simple. A counter-balance of plasticine (stiki-stuff) may be needed.
Children compare masses using the balance ,since gravity acts on both pans ,we are not measuring forces but comparing masses of the objects. Even if you use a so-called weight ,for example 10 kg ,this is really a mass so pupils can compare two objects.
Children should used to make statements like:
'This object has the same mass as one of the 20kg'
'The brick weighs the same as a mass of 2kg (ie .the brick has a mass of 2kg)
In this way the children are demostrated the equivalence.
Moreover the children may use three or more objects to compare .The teacher can direct them to write statements of transitivity. (order) .For example Lee is greater than Tom and Tom is greater that Madelene. Lee must be greater than Madelene.
Weight and mass have always been difficult to teach clearly . The effort to distinguish between the two at an elementary stage worth making for the sake of children in future.
Types of Grouping and Techniques of management
The teacher must have a knowledge of different groups and how can there be organised to produce effective learning.
Ability Grouping
Putting pupils according to their performance or ability in a particular subject or overall performance.
It is based on one's pace of learning as alluded to by Piaget ,Spearman and Thurstone who have written about the intelligence.The surest way of accelerating the process of learning is to allow them to proceed at their own pace ,while providing stimuli in the process .Fast learners will learn best among other fast learners . The learners will need their kith and kin to maximise their learning.
The teacher have to provide different learning task to the groups suited to their pace of learning.
Disadvantage of Ability Grouping. There is the danger of self fulfilling prophecy which may result in depressing the performance of the pupils.
There is the potential negative labelling of pupils .Errors of selection cannot always be avoided ,misplacement of learners in wrong groups is always possible.
It may encourage eliticism --fast learners are made special at school --creating social class structure miniture (at a lower levels)
There is tendency for functionalism to breed in the school arising from feeling of superiority and inferiority.
Mixed Ability:
The assumption is that each pupil whether dull or intelligent as something to offer in any given learning environment.No single learner is hopeless at everything as long a he/she possesses acceptable level of normalcy.
Advantages of Mixed Ability includes the potential and less negative labelling of pupils.
Teachers have conduct a wide range of learners and teaching tends to be more diagnostic ,for instance on performance levels.
Troublesome pupils are spread more thinly through the class groups and there is wide social mix in schools.
Competition is replace by cooperation and errors of selection into streans of groups are avoided.
There is mutual respect ,support,understanding and tolerance.
Disadvantages of Mixed Ability Grouping.It increases preparation and marking by the teacher.
There is need for more resources and more care of using them.It generates greater troubles and stressed the teacher and doesn't sufficiently stretched the fast learners and may reduce their performance to mediocrity.It also reduces academic excellency
Management Skills:
Teaching mixed ability classes there are three form of management skills which are preparatory ,strategic and evaluation.
Preparatory Skills:
Devise and prepare appropriate curriculum or content for each group.Utilise their interpersonal skills in planning and preparation of course work materials.Make an adequate understanding of their individual differences .
Strategies Skills/Teaching Strategies:
Make use of variety of teaching methods and handle groups tactfully.Be flexible and adaptsble when interacting with individual children.
Evaluation Skills :
Monitor and record progress made by individual learners.Effectively use numerous assessment techniques for individual learners.Make evaluation of your own teaching and being strictly involved in reflective teaching ,for example reflecting on your introduction ,content,media ,etc.
Tutorial Questions
(1)What is (a)mixed ability grouping
(b)ability grouping in the taeching and learning process.
(2)Discuss the use of mixed ability or ability grouping in the teaching of specific subject of your on choice in the teaching of any class.
(3)Explain what you understand by the terms group Dynamics and grouping .(a)How can you use grouping as an effective teaching technique in the teaching in a classroom situation.
(4)Compare and contrast mixed ability and ability grouping as teaching teachnique in a class set up.
Ability Grouping
Putting pupils according to their performance or ability in a particular subject or overall performance.
It is based on one's pace of learning as alluded to by Piaget ,Spearman and Thurstone who have written about the intelligence.The surest way of accelerating the process of learning is to allow them to proceed at their own pace ,while providing stimuli in the process .Fast learners will learn best among other fast learners . The learners will need their kith and kin to maximise their learning.
The teacher have to provide different learning task to the groups suited to their pace of learning.
Disadvantage of Ability Grouping. There is the danger of self fulfilling prophecy which may result in depressing the performance of the pupils.
There is the potential negative labelling of pupils .Errors of selection cannot always be avoided ,misplacement of learners in wrong groups is always possible.
It may encourage eliticism --fast learners are made special at school --creating social class structure miniture (at a lower levels)
There is tendency for functionalism to breed in the school arising from feeling of superiority and inferiority.
Mixed Ability:
The assumption is that each pupil whether dull or intelligent as something to offer in any given learning environment.No single learner is hopeless at everything as long a he/she possesses acceptable level of normalcy.
Advantages of Mixed Ability includes the potential and less negative labelling of pupils.
Teachers have conduct a wide range of learners and teaching tends to be more diagnostic ,for instance on performance levels.
Troublesome pupils are spread more thinly through the class groups and there is wide social mix in schools.
Competition is replace by cooperation and errors of selection into streans of groups are avoided.
There is mutual respect ,support,understanding and tolerance.
Disadvantages of Mixed Ability Grouping.It increases preparation and marking by the teacher.
There is need for more resources and more care of using them.It generates greater troubles and stressed the teacher and doesn't sufficiently stretched the fast learners and may reduce their performance to mediocrity.It also reduces academic excellency
Management Skills:
Teaching mixed ability classes there are three form of management skills which are preparatory ,strategic and evaluation.
Preparatory Skills:
Devise and prepare appropriate curriculum or content for each group.Utilise their interpersonal skills in planning and preparation of course work materials.Make an adequate understanding of their individual differences .
Strategies Skills/Teaching Strategies:
Make use of variety of teaching methods and handle groups tactfully.Be flexible and adaptsble when interacting with individual children.
Evaluation Skills :
Monitor and record progress made by individual learners.Effectively use numerous assessment techniques for individual learners.Make evaluation of your own teaching and being strictly involved in reflective teaching ,for example reflecting on your introduction ,content,media ,etc.
Tutorial Questions
(1)What is (a)mixed ability grouping
(b)ability grouping in the taeching and learning process.
(2)Discuss the use of mixed ability or ability grouping in the teaching of specific subject of your on choice in the teaching of any class.
(3)Explain what you understand by the terms group Dynamics and grouping .(a)How can you use grouping as an effective teaching technique in the teaching in a classroom situation.
(4)Compare and contrast mixed ability and ability grouping as teaching teachnique in a class set up.
Schemes of Work and Lesson Planning of Physical Education
Long term preparation which involves the designing and making of a scheme of work for some weeks or the whole term.The teacher can ensure a logical and purposeful development of the work and the inclusion of all the aspects necessary to the child's development in physical education ,only by planning ahead.
The format of a scheme of work can vary from school to school or college to college. Generally a scheme of work can have: Date, activities ,sources of matter,equipment and media,aims ,methods and organisationa and evaluative comment columns.
A teacher who is scheming takes into considerations these factors:
1.The children 's initial ability ,co-ordination ,interest and expectations;
2.Available facilities;
3.The teacher's own fitness and expertise;
4.The size of the facilities;
5.The distance of the facilities to the classroom;
6.the available equipment ,its quality ,quantity and safety to children;
7.Time allocated to physical education;
8.Children and parential attitudes to physical education;
9.Equipments and facilities which can be hired from other schools or the community.
10.A consideration of whether the lesson or lessons can be intergrated with other subjects;
11.the physical education attire for children;
12.teaching styles;
13.technical media available for learning and teaching;
14.A resource person in the form of a specialist coach,physcian, which can be called upon to enrich physical lessons.
The evaluation of the scheme of work is an on-going weekly basis by the teacher and the whole teaching process. Comments on the scheme should forwarded to help the next week lesson or theme to be covered next.
The weekly evaluation process of the scheme of work should compile the evaluation of the lessons and is enabling pupils to achieve:
•good attitudes towards healthy living;
•good health and fitness;
•the development of habits of recreation;
•a high level of skill acquisition;
•the ability to work in groups sharing equipment and facilities;
•enjoyment and a sense of achievement.
As the teacher is evaluating the schemes of work should also focus on the teaching and learnnig process to make improvements of facilities and equipments in the school and the teacher expertise to perfect the way lesson is delivered.
The evaluation process should involve the school programmes at school or college . The staff development on the teaching of physical education . The improvements of standards in the classroom ,school ,cluster ,district or national level. Appraisal of general improvement in tone of the institution.
Lesson Planning :Every lesson need to be thoroughly planned to be excuted well and achieve its intended goals. It is unjust and unprofessional to teach without a well planned lessons. Teachers can only monitored ,supervised through the professional documents schemes of work and lesson plans are part of these documsnts.
Like the schemes of work ,lesson plans can differ from college to college or school to school.The lesson plans are like the schemes of work only to include number of pupils, objective for example: By the end of the lesson children should have experience the different directions in which they can move with and without apparatus ,that's forwards ,backwards ,upwards and sideways.
Every lesson plan should have a stimulating introduction . The introduction must be short warm up activity to prepare children for the lesson.Activities can be carried out with or without equipment. and is expected to last two to five minutes.
Lesson development is the actual teaching part of the lesson and covers 10 -20 minutes of the lesson.
The climax is where lesson progressed to competition or application of the learned skills in a mini game situation. The climax take 5-10 minutes.
Conclusion should be made up of brief cooling down exercise and need the last 2-5 minutes of the last part of the lesson.
The lesson progress is stagged in sequential order .These stages should contain description of what is to be done by the learners in the activity column and descriptions of how the skills are to be taught in the coaching column. The column on organisation should give information on how children are going to work. for instance pupils may be in pairs or small groups and also how the equipment available is going to be distributed ,used ,collected and stored. The teacher should state time or duration each stage will going to spent in a lesson.
At the end of each lesson the teacher should make an evaluation of the lesson.
The format of a scheme of work can vary from school to school or college to college. Generally a scheme of work can have: Date, activities ,sources of matter,equipment and media,aims ,methods and organisationa and evaluative comment columns.
A teacher who is scheming takes into considerations these factors:
1.The children 's initial ability ,co-ordination ,interest and expectations;
2.Available facilities;
3.The teacher's own fitness and expertise;
4.The size of the facilities;
5.The distance of the facilities to the classroom;
6.the available equipment ,its quality ,quantity and safety to children;
7.Time allocated to physical education;
8.Children and parential attitudes to physical education;
9.Equipments and facilities which can be hired from other schools or the community.
10.A consideration of whether the lesson or lessons can be intergrated with other subjects;
11.the physical education attire for children;
12.teaching styles;
13.technical media available for learning and teaching;
14.A resource person in the form of a specialist coach,physcian, which can be called upon to enrich physical lessons.
The evaluation of the scheme of work is an on-going weekly basis by the teacher and the whole teaching process. Comments on the scheme should forwarded to help the next week lesson or theme to be covered next.
The weekly evaluation process of the scheme of work should compile the evaluation of the lessons and is enabling pupils to achieve:
•good attitudes towards healthy living;
•good health and fitness;
•the development of habits of recreation;
•a high level of skill acquisition;
•the ability to work in groups sharing equipment and facilities;
•enjoyment and a sense of achievement.
As the teacher is evaluating the schemes of work should also focus on the teaching and learnnig process to make improvements of facilities and equipments in the school and the teacher expertise to perfect the way lesson is delivered.
The evaluation process should involve the school programmes at school or college . The staff development on the teaching of physical education . The improvements of standards in the classroom ,school ,cluster ,district or national level. Appraisal of general improvement in tone of the institution.
Lesson Planning :Every lesson need to be thoroughly planned to be excuted well and achieve its intended goals. It is unjust and unprofessional to teach without a well planned lessons. Teachers can only monitored ,supervised through the professional documents schemes of work and lesson plans are part of these documsnts.
Like the schemes of work ,lesson plans can differ from college to college or school to school.The lesson plans are like the schemes of work only to include number of pupils, objective for example: By the end of the lesson children should have experience the different directions in which they can move with and without apparatus ,that's forwards ,backwards ,upwards and sideways.
Every lesson plan should have a stimulating introduction . The introduction must be short warm up activity to prepare children for the lesson.Activities can be carried out with or without equipment. and is expected to last two to five minutes.
Lesson development is the actual teaching part of the lesson and covers 10 -20 minutes of the lesson.
The climax is where lesson progressed to competition or application of the learned skills in a mini game situation. The climax take 5-10 minutes.
Conclusion should be made up of brief cooling down exercise and need the last 2-5 minutes of the last part of the lesson.
The lesson progress is stagged in sequential order .These stages should contain description of what is to be done by the learners in the activity column and descriptions of how the skills are to be taught in the coaching column. The column on organisation should give information on how children are going to work. for instance pupils may be in pairs or small groups and also how the equipment available is going to be distributed ,used ,collected and stored. The teacher should state time or duration each stage will going to spent in a lesson.
At the end of each lesson the teacher should make an evaluation of the lesson.
WELL -WISHERS COME TO NYANHUNZI'S RESCUE IN DIRE NEED OF FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE!
Nyanhunzi primary school is appealing for those who can assist them to fund the eletric project. The school has problem of clean water to be used by school children for drinking and hygienic sanitation after use of toilets. Which now plan to use an electric pump to pump water to the school among other eletrical uses at the school.
Moreover for school 's electrical project to be successful the school is in dire financial straits and need $13 000 specifically for the project to be successful . Parents and local stone sculptors contributed a lot for school development ,but the fundraising of the above amount is difficult ,hence appealing to the exernal sponsors/donors for assistance. The successful electrical connection to the national grid ,make it possible to connect an electric pumped water to the school specifically for sustainable health and sanitiation for a school with enrolment of 850 primary school children and 22 member staff.
Donations or offers of help can be directed to Nyanhunzi Primary School ,Private bag 2004 Guruve .
Call:+263772107508
+263741024025
james.jchamu@gmail.com
Moreover for school 's electrical project to be successful the school is in dire financial straits and need $13 000 specifically for the project to be successful . Parents and local stone sculptors contributed a lot for school development ,but the fundraising of the above amount is difficult ,hence appealing to the exernal sponsors/donors for assistance. The successful electrical connection to the national grid ,make it possible to connect an electric pumped water to the school specifically for sustainable health and sanitiation for a school with enrolment of 850 primary school children and 22 member staff.
Donations or offers of help can be directed to Nyanhunzi Primary School ,Private bag 2004 Guruve .
Call:+263772107508
+263741024025
james.jchamu@gmail.com
Teaching Reading to improve communicative skills.
Reading is now regarded as useful skill ,every child going to school must possess. Without doubt reading is very important anywhere even online to communicate with various websites ,textbooks,newspapers ,emails ,or to operate a PC or mobile all this devices needs someone with abilities to read and understand what is written.
Reading is the ability to pronounce words correctly and fluently. Reading can be done for understanding the passage ,so as to comprehend when answering questions.These two tend to ignore the simplicity of reading skill . Therefore reading is a skill in which information from the text and knowledge of the reader act concurrently to produce a meaning.
Anderson et al (1995) put a view of reading as interaction by means of which an author's meaning encoded in written symbols becomes meaningful in the minds of the reader. Reading is a thinking process which includes decoding of written symbols ,interpreting the meaning of those symbols as well as applying ideas that we have.
Friedman and Roshels (1980)suggest reading as extraction of meaning from written symbols to be both decoding and communicating process. In which the effective domain figures out strongly ,that's something to do with our emotions.
Therefore teachers should try to motivate pupils to like reading as reading is a holistic behaviour not broken into pieces that had to be seperated.
ASPECTS OF READING
Decording which is identifying the pronunciation and meaning of symbols in the form of letters combined to make a words,digits to make numbers or some different signs used in a particular places such as industries ,roads or society can agreed by all members and then taught to the next children.
Reading also involves word attack and word recognition which require the knowledge of symbols and their sounds as well as the knowledge of word structures.When words identification is automatic then decoding is a prerequisite ,but itself is reading.
Interpretation or comprehension,besides decoding comprehension has to be there so as to have an analysis of hidden meanings and its implications.
Reading can be applied successfully by decoding , interpretation and effectively by application of knowledge and information.The maturation of knowledge and skills exclusively depends on the skill actively used in new situations ,that's new ideas applied to previous knowledge and experience. The teacher should give exercises in the form of evaluating questions as well as questions which probe pupils to read the passege.
AFFECTIVE SUPPORT AND LEARNING
Pupils' attitudes early in their life has to be towards positive in interest or need to read then if supported by environment which promotes positive reading process this pupils will succeed. Teacher should create such environment fostered by positive attitudes towards reading by displaying positive attitudes personally ,being seen reading by pupils for example newspapers ,magazines ,newsletters or browsing the internet. After that give them an interesting summary of exciting stories or news you read about.Demostrate to them how enjoyable it is to read on your own.
HOLISTIC READING
Interact whole rather than seperate skills: Reading is more than some of the sub -skills of reading . Usually people reading by letting the sub-skills interact ,so that it become one act of reading.They make intelligent guesses and check on enough decoding aids such as phonics ,while in checking meaningful clues arranged sequentially by the author in building up the message. Reading is not a one thing process ,it require continous practice inorder to develop this skill.
Reading is the ability to pronounce words correctly and fluently. Reading can be done for understanding the passage ,so as to comprehend when answering questions.These two tend to ignore the simplicity of reading skill . Therefore reading is a skill in which information from the text and knowledge of the reader act concurrently to produce a meaning.
Anderson et al (1995) put a view of reading as interaction by means of which an author's meaning encoded in written symbols becomes meaningful in the minds of the reader. Reading is a thinking process which includes decoding of written symbols ,interpreting the meaning of those symbols as well as applying ideas that we have.
Friedman and Roshels (1980)suggest reading as extraction of meaning from written symbols to be both decoding and communicating process. In which the effective domain figures out strongly ,that's something to do with our emotions.
Therefore teachers should try to motivate pupils to like reading as reading is a holistic behaviour not broken into pieces that had to be seperated.
ASPECTS OF READING
Decording which is identifying the pronunciation and meaning of symbols in the form of letters combined to make a words,digits to make numbers or some different signs used in a particular places such as industries ,roads or society can agreed by all members and then taught to the next children.
Reading also involves word attack and word recognition which require the knowledge of symbols and their sounds as well as the knowledge of word structures.When words identification is automatic then decoding is a prerequisite ,but itself is reading.
Interpretation or comprehension,besides decoding comprehension has to be there so as to have an analysis of hidden meanings and its implications.
Reading can be applied successfully by decoding , interpretation and effectively by application of knowledge and information.The maturation of knowledge and skills exclusively depends on the skill actively used in new situations ,that's new ideas applied to previous knowledge and experience. The teacher should give exercises in the form of evaluating questions as well as questions which probe pupils to read the passege.
AFFECTIVE SUPPORT AND LEARNING
Pupils' attitudes early in their life has to be towards positive in interest or need to read then if supported by environment which promotes positive reading process this pupils will succeed. Teacher should create such environment fostered by positive attitudes towards reading by displaying positive attitudes personally ,being seen reading by pupils for example newspapers ,magazines ,newsletters or browsing the internet. After that give them an interesting summary of exciting stories or news you read about.Demostrate to them how enjoyable it is to read on your own.
HOLISTIC READING
Interact whole rather than seperate skills: Reading is more than some of the sub -skills of reading . Usually people reading by letting the sub-skills interact ,so that it become one act of reading.They make intelligent guesses and check on enough decoding aids such as phonics ,while in checking meaningful clues arranged sequentially by the author in building up the message. Reading is not a one thing process ,it require continous practice inorder to develop this skill.
HOW TEACHER IMPROVE LANGUAGE COMPETENCE AND PERFORMANCE IN PRIMARY SCHOOL CHILDREN?
The main purpose we teach first or second language is to help children to be competent and perform better in business and social interactions through their communicative skills.
Competence is defined by Greene and Coulson (1995:18) in Mhundwa (1998:3) as people's knowledge of a language ,the knowledge that enables them to produce and understand utterance in that language.
Chomsky (1966:4) in Mhundwa (1998:4) describes competence as,"... the speaker or hearer knowledge of his language and performance is the actual use of language."
Mhundwa (1998)says performance to be actual production of comprehension of utterance whether in speech or writing .
Bolinger (1985)refers competence to the general rules of the grammar governing the language ,for example rules such as:
(A)Adding 's' after a verb which comes after a singular subject.
(B)Adding 's' when talking of many things.
The sentence are not learnt by memorisation and immitations as is reflected by the ability of a speaker to construct an infinity number of sentences and also the ability to express idea in several ways using the same language. The length of sentence vary from very short to too long. Therefore the sentences are generated from the speaker's underline competence which has many forms:
(1)Linguistic competence , refers to the underline rules of a language .
(2)Communicative competence which is the ability to use the system of a language effectively and appropriately by involving the two components which are the ability to transmit meaning through talking and writing. And the ability to interprete through reading and listening.Thus convey meaning by speaking and writing and interpretation by listening and reading.
It also involves pragmatics which is the ability to use language for various functions ,that's to use different registers for language as well as knowing where it is socially appropriate.
Consail and Swine(1990) categorise communicative competence in four dimensions which are:
(A)Grammatical competence.
(B)Socio linguistic competence which refers to understand of social content and context in which language is used.
(C)Discourse competence which is the interpretation of individual message elements in terms of their inter connectedness and how meaning is represented in relationship to the entire discourse.
(D)Strategic competence which relates to the strategies communicatiors employ to initiate terminate maintain repair and redirect communication.
Hence communicative competence is functional competence which are functional purportive and designed to bring some effects and some change which however is subtle or in observable.
Meanwhile functional approach sees communicative as a way of behaving and making other behave .A person who possess communicative competence use language to fulfill Halliday's seven functions of language:
(1)Instrumental function which is the ability to manipulate the environment and cause certain things to happen.
(2)Regulatory function as the ability to deal with or the control of events.
(3)Representational function comprised the ability to convey facts and knowledge.
(4)Interactional function is meant to ensure social maintenance .
(5)Personal function as the ability to express feelings emotions and personality.
(6)Heuristic function relates to the ability to acquire knowledge and learn from environment.
(7)Imagnative function refers to ability to create imaginary system and ideas for instance during Art lessons.
The teacher can implicate these competence in pupils ' perfomance by encourage them to use language consistantly .Give them free explorative and creative work. The teacher should encourage pupils to read extensively ,that's promoting reading culture.
A teacher who always communicate in a proper language,who comments positively for perculiar utterances ,who teach and test and test and teach is both reflective and dynamic.
Where possiblethe teacher should immerse second language learning while they are compiled with the native speakers.
The improvements in professional performance as a teacher needs wide reading, research and consultation,give comprehensive comments,communicate consistantly in the target language ,fully grasped the content to be taught and to study carefully the children's written work.
Further Reading
Mhundwa ,P.H.(1998) Communication Grammatical Strategies for Teaching English as a Second Language : An Applied Linguistic Approach.
Bolinger, D (1985) Aspects of Language
Richards and Rodgers(1986) Approaches and Methods.
Tompkins and Hoskisson (1986) Language Arts ,content Teaching Strategies.
Competence is defined by Greene and Coulson (1995:18) in Mhundwa (1998:3) as people's knowledge of a language ,the knowledge that enables them to produce and understand utterance in that language.
Chomsky (1966:4) in Mhundwa (1998:4) describes competence as,"... the speaker or hearer knowledge of his language and performance is the actual use of language."
Mhundwa (1998)says performance to be actual production of comprehension of utterance whether in speech or writing .
Bolinger (1985)refers competence to the general rules of the grammar governing the language ,for example rules such as:
(A)Adding 's' after a verb which comes after a singular subject.
(B)Adding 's' when talking of many things.
The sentence are not learnt by memorisation and immitations as is reflected by the ability of a speaker to construct an infinity number of sentences and also the ability to express idea in several ways using the same language. The length of sentence vary from very short to too long. Therefore the sentences are generated from the speaker's underline competence which has many forms:
(1)Linguistic competence , refers to the underline rules of a language .
(2)Communicative competence which is the ability to use the system of a language effectively and appropriately by involving the two components which are the ability to transmit meaning through talking and writing. And the ability to interprete through reading and listening.Thus convey meaning by speaking and writing and interpretation by listening and reading.
It also involves pragmatics which is the ability to use language for various functions ,that's to use different registers for language as well as knowing where it is socially appropriate.
Consail and Swine(1990) categorise communicative competence in four dimensions which are:
(A)Grammatical competence.
(B)Socio linguistic competence which refers to understand of social content and context in which language is used.
(C)Discourse competence which is the interpretation of individual message elements in terms of their inter connectedness and how meaning is represented in relationship to the entire discourse.
(D)Strategic competence which relates to the strategies communicatiors employ to initiate terminate maintain repair and redirect communication.
Hence communicative competence is functional competence which are functional purportive and designed to bring some effects and some change which however is subtle or in observable.
Meanwhile functional approach sees communicative as a way of behaving and making other behave .A person who possess communicative competence use language to fulfill Halliday's seven functions of language:
(1)Instrumental function which is the ability to manipulate the environment and cause certain things to happen.
(2)Regulatory function as the ability to deal with or the control of events.
(3)Representational function comprised the ability to convey facts and knowledge.
(4)Interactional function is meant to ensure social maintenance .
(5)Personal function as the ability to express feelings emotions and personality.
(6)Heuristic function relates to the ability to acquire knowledge and learn from environment.
(7)Imagnative function refers to ability to create imaginary system and ideas for instance during Art lessons.
The teacher can implicate these competence in pupils ' perfomance by encourage them to use language consistantly .Give them free explorative and creative work. The teacher should encourage pupils to read extensively ,that's promoting reading culture.
A teacher who always communicate in a proper language,who comments positively for perculiar utterances ,who teach and test and test and teach is both reflective and dynamic.
Where possiblethe teacher should immerse second language learning while they are compiled with the native speakers.
The improvements in professional performance as a teacher needs wide reading, research and consultation,give comprehensive comments,communicate consistantly in the target language ,fully grasped the content to be taught and to study carefully the children's written work.
Further Reading
Mhundwa ,P.H.(1998) Communication Grammatical Strategies for Teaching English as a Second Language : An Applied Linguistic Approach.
Bolinger, D (1985) Aspects of Language
Richards and Rodgers(1986) Approaches and Methods.
Tompkins and Hoskisson (1986) Language Arts ,content Teaching Strategies.
Developing Reading Skills in children at 9-11 years of age!
Children in infant grades usually read aided by the use of pictures to match the words below the pictures.When they are in juniour grades the use of of picture is no longer for every word and more content to be read is a little bit more as they are expected to recognise a wide variety of words without pictures besides. Also their vocabulary is now being enriched quiet well. Remember the use of pictures speaks more than 1000 words!
Therefore the teacher of this juniours need to find out how good or how weak their reading levels are, in order to be given the needed assistance. The levels is measured by number of words the child can read with asking for assistance in a specific passage.
Lets consider that they are poor readers at this grade and the assumption should not conclude them to be stupid. There are many factors which we should consider why they are poor in reading ,for examples it may be previous badly taught,lack of reading materials exposed to them or social background such as violence,hunger and general social unrest are some causes which lead the capability in children to be backward in reading skills.
The teacher should now strategically use assessment and own knowledge of children's reading to group them in small groups to assist each other. The groups can be set according to their ability or in mixed grouping.
When grouping the children ,the teacher should note the following:
Children should not be kept in this groups for too long the grouping can be change varied ,if it is mixed ,can be changed to ability .
The progress of pupils must be noticed and move them to different groups strategically and accordingly.The slowest group need to be motivated and helped a lot so that they feel your efforts for them to not feel dejected and condemned to permanent backwardness.
Therefore the teacher of this juniours need to find out how good or how weak their reading levels are, in order to be given the needed assistance. The levels is measured by number of words the child can read with asking for assistance in a specific passage.
Lets consider that they are poor readers at this grade and the assumption should not conclude them to be stupid. There are many factors which we should consider why they are poor in reading ,for examples it may be previous badly taught,lack of reading materials exposed to them or social background such as violence,hunger and general social unrest are some causes which lead the capability in children to be backward in reading skills.
The teacher should now strategically use assessment and own knowledge of children's reading to group them in small groups to assist each other. The groups can be set according to their ability or in mixed grouping.
When grouping the children ,the teacher should note the following:
Children should not be kept in this groups for too long the grouping can be change varied ,if it is mixed ,can be changed to ability .
The progress of pupils must be noticed and move them to different groups strategically and accordingly.The slowest group need to be motivated and helped a lot so that they feel your efforts for them to not feel dejected and condemned to permanent backwardness.
Development oral skills in the teaching and learning of a Language.
Human beings the only animal species with the capabilities of producing different sounds which decoded into words to mean something when the encoder express or describe anything. Children after they attained two to 15 years do more of talking and listening than reading and writing.The teachers of this age group should therefore prepare language lession to use spoken words in real life situation as it was theorised by chomsky.Teaching children to read and write before they can understand and say is against teaching children to develop the language naturally or depressing the Language's communicative skills. Acquired Device which Chomsky suggested is in every human being which help to acquire any language when exposed to such environment where the language is frequently spoken.When speaking people speak sentences ,facing each other as they interact in words,phrases ,exclamations or gestures.When we teach language its not its structural system but how we communicate through a language. In other words we reinforce normal and acceptable communicative acts of which communication is very important.Chomsky argued that children should allowed to speak naturally and then the teacher help them to express them correctly witthout grammatical errors and correct pronunciation. In other words the teacher can help in developing oral skills should be in context with the activities done in the local environment speaking correct vocabulary ,for instance dribbling in playing football, worshiping in church etc.Children should be able to express themselves in different situations functionally for a specific purpose at a specific occassion.
True meaningful language should satisfy grammar rules ,true sentences supported by experience ,feelings and following of a particular incident.Basically language is taught for its structural forms and the meaning for communication.Drills should be modified,sentence patterns to be inline with learners' needs and conveying the accuracy in language spoken.
The teacher as a role model is of great important in all aspects of the target language.Children should learn to speak to be able to be understood and and understand others in any communication set up.
Learning to speak is essential in habit -forming process .The duty of the teacher is to know areas where children are affected most as it can be forestalled mostly by mistakes of being a good model and introduction of teaching aids in lesson presentation.
True meaningful language should satisfy grammar rules ,true sentences supported by experience ,feelings and following of a particular incident.Basically language is taught for its structural forms and the meaning for communication.Drills should be modified,sentence patterns to be inline with learners' needs and conveying the accuracy in language spoken.
The teacher as a role model is of great important in all aspects of the target language.Children should learn to speak to be able to be understood and and understand others in any communication set up.
Learning to speak is essential in habit -forming process .The duty of the teacher is to know areas where children are affected most as it can be forestalled mostly by mistakes of being a good model and introduction of teaching aids in lesson presentation.
Comprehension and Remedial Techniques
Reading for understanding help children not to pronounce words fluently or even word attacking but it also motivate them to have basic knowledge ,apply what they read and critically analyse the passage. This can only be possible because of technically constructed questions which test the five basic skills ,that's knowledge,application ,comprehension,analysis and evaluation.
When the teacher is constructing comprehension questions from the text ,should avoid stick to questions printed in the textbook, focus on literal factual questions which are close ended ,but rather the questions must promote divergent thinkers instead of convergent thinkers.
The target questions are helpful when asked before the children read the text.In case of difficult passage oral questions can be asked to enlighten children after each paragraph.However it may be monotonous to the fast readers as it breaks off the flow of the reading,although the weaker readers benefit immensely from grasping the meaning whilst reading from one section to the next.Because this system makes them to understand the whole passage as they identify the sequence and assisted through discussions.
The comprehension questions should be of general theme and short factual which involve in two or more parts of the passage.The other questions must be inference ,using the passage information as a basis.The questions must relate to the passage and children 's experience.
Full written questions are unnecessary to the juniours than to the infants. Oral answers are enough to improve listening and pupils should be allowed to write short answers during oral questioning session.
Remedial is not only done to examinable subjects only. Every subject taught can be remedied. Remedial generally is how the teacher revisit the areas the learner spotted to have difficulties.In most schools around Zimbabwe remedial committe formed by the members of staff is given the task to carry staff development courses to equip other teachers on the techniques of carrying the remedial work.Remedial reading is normally done after the normal teaching period.During remedial exercise the teachers are encouraged to regards individual children.
The professional remedial record book should show the progress of those being remeded.
Teachers are needed to take note of the point that textbook are not effective in remedial reading ,it is necessary to use simpler books which are lower to their grades.Some schools may have problems of reading materials so the teachers should improvise own booklets,reading cards ,using felt pens ,manilla ,newsprint and pictures from magazines and pamphlets.Phonic instruction is the strong element that benefits children during remediation.
In conclusion teachers should not turn blind eye to the backward readers merely by not attending to their problems. The teacher can only do so because there is a special teacher who can give those children who need special help so that they education may be effective.
When the teacher is constructing comprehension questions from the text ,should avoid stick to questions printed in the textbook, focus on literal factual questions which are close ended ,but rather the questions must promote divergent thinkers instead of convergent thinkers.
The target questions are helpful when asked before the children read the text.In case of difficult passage oral questions can be asked to enlighten children after each paragraph.However it may be monotonous to the fast readers as it breaks off the flow of the reading,although the weaker readers benefit immensely from grasping the meaning whilst reading from one section to the next.Because this system makes them to understand the whole passage as they identify the sequence and assisted through discussions.
The comprehension questions should be of general theme and short factual which involve in two or more parts of the passage.The other questions must be inference ,using the passage information as a basis.The questions must relate to the passage and children 's experience.
Full written questions are unnecessary to the juniours than to the infants. Oral answers are enough to improve listening and pupils should be allowed to write short answers during oral questioning session.
Remedial is not only done to examinable subjects only. Every subject taught can be remedied. Remedial generally is how the teacher revisit the areas the learner spotted to have difficulties.In most schools around Zimbabwe remedial committe formed by the members of staff is given the task to carry staff development courses to equip other teachers on the techniques of carrying the remedial work.Remedial reading is normally done after the normal teaching period.During remedial exercise the teachers are encouraged to regards individual children.
The professional remedial record book should show the progress of those being remeded.
Teachers are needed to take note of the point that textbook are not effective in remedial reading ,it is necessary to use simpler books which are lower to their grades.Some schools may have problems of reading materials so the teachers should improvise own booklets,reading cards ,using felt pens ,manilla ,newsprint and pictures from magazines and pamphlets.Phonic instruction is the strong element that benefits children during remediation.
In conclusion teachers should not turn blind eye to the backward readers merely by not attending to their problems. The teacher can only do so because there is a special teacher who can give those children who need special help so that they education may be effective.
CLASSROOM ORGANISATION:GROUP DYNAMICS
The scientific study of the interactionships within small groups and relationships of group members to one another when carrying specific task like learning in children helping each other.The aim is to discover the negleties,rejects and isolaties.These interactions and relationships are flexibles they aren't permanent. Hence there is need for a change in grouping strategies.Therefore grouping is situational.
According Gwarinda(1993)grouping ,involves diving the class into small groups of six or so pupils often with a group leader.Pupils should be given the chance to be group leaders.
Groups maybe permanent for all subject or only for certain subject.Subdividing a large class group into small manageable groups for effective teaching and learning. Most of teaching is effective by groupwork ,since class sizes are too large for teaching purposes.
Situations Suitable for Grouping
1.When material resources are limited.
2.When there is no enough time to reteach a concept.
3.The task is too heavy for the one person.
4.Development of social values ,for instance cooperation.
5.The methods of demands so ,for example discussion.
6.By nature the learners doesn't allow them to work alone ,like the physically challenged or slow learners.
7.When the teacher is unable to manage individually working learners.
Strategies for Grouping
It should be done before the lessons .Grouping can be done:
Using the name list:
The teacher picks names from the list from a systematic or in a random manner .
Following sitting arrangement:
Pupils count up to five and arrange them ,those who say one form a group and the twos and so on.Then arrange them in that order.
The learner's interest:
All pupils with the same interest are put in the same group ,for example in music pupils who are interested in soprano are put in the same group.
Friendship
Those who are friendly to each other are put in one group.
Ability
Pupils of the same ability are put in the same group that's slow learners grouped together and fast learners on their group.
Sex
Boys can be separated from girls or they may be mixed in a proportionate.
Personality
Learners of the same personality are put in the same group
Advantages of the Grouping Methods:
There is the sharing of the ideas which makes learners learn in a very short time.
Difficult tasks cannot be handled by a single hand and they may need the movement of furniture.
Material resources can be shared ,learning is made simple.
Social values can be developed , for instance tolerance,selflessness,teamwork ,cooperation etc.
The competition in group activities makes them work harder. Various materials can be used by different groups at the same time.
Talents in the learners can identified ,like leadership qualities can be exploited and it also promotes pupils participation.
Disadvantages of Grouping:
It is time consuming from orgsnisation to the working in group activities.
Learners are frustrated when ideas are not accepted. Mob-psychology may lead to time wasting ,influence may result in wrong tasks being done. These disrupted relations may sour if members are not compatible. and individual talents may be overshadowed,this means one's potential is suppressed in groupwork.
Accountability becomes a problem because no body is to be responsible for any wrong thing done .It may obviously led to poor results. Assessing group tasks can be very unfair.
The method increases the chances of descrimination.Superiority and inferiority may develop and it may be the harbour activities of laziness and bullying.
According Gwarinda(1993)grouping ,involves diving the class into small groups of six or so pupils often with a group leader.Pupils should be given the chance to be group leaders.
Groups maybe permanent for all subject or only for certain subject.Subdividing a large class group into small manageable groups for effective teaching and learning. Most of teaching is effective by groupwork ,since class sizes are too large for teaching purposes.
Situations Suitable for Grouping
1.When material resources are limited.
2.When there is no enough time to reteach a concept.
3.The task is too heavy for the one person.
4.Development of social values ,for instance cooperation.
5.The methods of demands so ,for example discussion.
6.By nature the learners doesn't allow them to work alone ,like the physically challenged or slow learners.
7.When the teacher is unable to manage individually working learners.
Strategies for Grouping
It should be done before the lessons .Grouping can be done:
Using the name list:
The teacher picks names from the list from a systematic or in a random manner .
Following sitting arrangement:
Pupils count up to five and arrange them ,those who say one form a group and the twos and so on.Then arrange them in that order.
The learner's interest:
All pupils with the same interest are put in the same group ,for example in music pupils who are interested in soprano are put in the same group.
Friendship
Those who are friendly to each other are put in one group.
Ability
Pupils of the same ability are put in the same group that's slow learners grouped together and fast learners on their group.
Sex
Boys can be separated from girls or they may be mixed in a proportionate.
Personality
Learners of the same personality are put in the same group
Advantages of the Grouping Methods:
There is the sharing of the ideas which makes learners learn in a very short time.
Difficult tasks cannot be handled by a single hand and they may need the movement of furniture.
Material resources can be shared ,learning is made simple.
Social values can be developed , for instance tolerance,selflessness,teamwork ,cooperation etc.
The competition in group activities makes them work harder. Various materials can be used by different groups at the same time.
Talents in the learners can identified ,like leadership qualities can be exploited and it also promotes pupils participation.
Disadvantages of Grouping:
It is time consuming from orgsnisation to the working in group activities.
Learners are frustrated when ideas are not accepted. Mob-psychology may lead to time wasting ,influence may result in wrong tasks being done. These disrupted relations may sour if members are not compatible. and individual talents may be overshadowed,this means one's potential is suppressed in groupwork.
Accountability becomes a problem because no body is to be responsible for any wrong thing done .It may obviously led to poor results. Assessing group tasks can be very unfair.
The method increases the chances of descrimination.Superiority and inferiority may develop and it may be the harbour activities of laziness and bullying.
The main causes of reading problems to the children
There are so many problems which inhibit children developing the skills of reading among them include ,mispronunciation ,stammering ,lack of practice and environment not conducive for promoting reading skill development.
Some of educational causes of reading problems include inadequate reading readiness before formal teaching of reading. Some may have inadequate oral language base according to Sprosty (1993) a child can never read a word s/he can never seen before.
Children may get inappropriate reading instructions. Pupils learn to read effectively by developmental and appropriately paced approach. However the teachers must avoid reading texts at frustrational levels. They must consider the different cognitive levels of children ,the instructional levels which guide children to read after given instrument. The independent reading level ,the children reads without instructions.
Teachers in the developing countries for example because of lack of the educators. The few who are in the field are given large classes of over 60 pupils whom will definitely lack individualised instructions and good teacher pupil relationships.Some children have reading problems simply because they afraid their teacher or the teacher is not patient to the slow learners and have self-fulfilling prophecy ,that's having a pre-conceived idea of the child.
The reading programme might be displayed well on the timetable ,but the teachers may not utilise it as they focus on other skills such as writing and oral work.Instead of the reading programme as per timetable.
Some school administrators may lack the knowledge of supervising their staff to develop reading skills and some communities have poor school attendance which is not pleasing teachers to effectively help pupils to develop their language skills such as of reading which needs constant practise. In some communities again there is also massive movements of children as their parents are migrating to other places seeking for employment or sustainable and comfortable living conditions after being affected by wars,natural disasters or any other possible natural causes.
Apart of educational causes, physical causes can hinder every workable reading skills these include visual defects,stammering ,poor general health ,malnutrition,auditory defects or the lack of medical assistance.
Intellectual causes can cause reading problems and are found to be of average or below average intelligence. At about transitional period when the child is wearning from infants classes to juniours ,intellectual ability becomes more and more critical.This is because of the need for evaluation and interpretation of what the child read for understanding(comprehension).
Finally the social and emotional causes contribute to reading difficulties which further trigger emotional disturbances.
Social backgrounds or cultural activities may deprived children as they are not getting effective instructions . When teaching reading teachers should make use of concrete media to enhance the concrete experience for a particular learner.
Some of educational causes of reading problems include inadequate reading readiness before formal teaching of reading. Some may have inadequate oral language base according to Sprosty (1993) a child can never read a word s/he can never seen before.
Children may get inappropriate reading instructions. Pupils learn to read effectively by developmental and appropriately paced approach. However the teachers must avoid reading texts at frustrational levels. They must consider the different cognitive levels of children ,the instructional levels which guide children to read after given instrument. The independent reading level ,the children reads without instructions.
Teachers in the developing countries for example because of lack of the educators. The few who are in the field are given large classes of over 60 pupils whom will definitely lack individualised instructions and good teacher pupil relationships.Some children have reading problems simply because they afraid their teacher or the teacher is not patient to the slow learners and have self-fulfilling prophecy ,that's having a pre-conceived idea of the child.
The reading programme might be displayed well on the timetable ,but the teachers may not utilise it as they focus on other skills such as writing and oral work.Instead of the reading programme as per timetable.
Some school administrators may lack the knowledge of supervising their staff to develop reading skills and some communities have poor school attendance which is not pleasing teachers to effectively help pupils to develop their language skills such as of reading which needs constant practise. In some communities again there is also massive movements of children as their parents are migrating to other places seeking for employment or sustainable and comfortable living conditions after being affected by wars,natural disasters or any other possible natural causes.
Apart of educational causes, physical causes can hinder every workable reading skills these include visual defects,stammering ,poor general health ,malnutrition,auditory defects or the lack of medical assistance.
Intellectual causes can cause reading problems and are found to be of average or below average intelligence. At about transitional period when the child is wearning from infants classes to juniours ,intellectual ability becomes more and more critical.This is because of the need for evaluation and interpretation of what the child read for understanding(comprehension).
Finally the social and emotional causes contribute to reading difficulties which further trigger emotional disturbances.
Social backgrounds or cultural activities may deprived children as they are not getting effective instructions . When teaching reading teachers should make use of concrete media to enhance the concrete experience for a particular learner.
The Development of Oral Skills in Children Education
Language is primarily speech. The knowledge of a language is often associated with the ability to understand and speak the language.
The development of aural-oral skills (listening and speaking) has a crucial role to play in second language teaching programme as it comparatively easy to develop other skills namely reading and writing . Basing on the oral foundation of speaking and listening.
The advantages of oral approach are that foundation of learning to read and write especially second language. It is vital to personal development . By providing learning children with tools for intellectual development of comprehension and problem-solving. Furthermore help in the internalisation of grammar ,in addition to easier correction of studies.
The skill of listening helps the learner to understand the spoken language and the teacher in particular as he/she directs the methhod of instruction. The learner recognise both the language speech sounds both in isolation and in combination.
Moreover in the skill of listening the child is capable of distinguishing the language sounds in similar one in his/her first language and understand the lexical meaning of words in context and grammatical meanings of structures. Listening skills make it understandable in the meaning conveyed by stress and intonation patterns.
The listener can able to grasp the mood of the speaker and the theme of the discourse ,that's the speech. Anticipation words and structures from the context for understanding speech at normal conversation speed. The listening skill also enables to guess the meaning of unfamiliar words from the context.
The skill of speaking in other side helps to assist the student to be able to produce the characteristc language speech sounds both in isolation and combination. The use of appropriated stress and intonation pattern. The speaker can use appropriate words and structures to express intended meaning . Through recalling words and structures quickly ,organised in thoughts and ideas logically. In addition can also able to adjust speech according to audience situation and subject.
The teacher can now plan activities for training discrimination of sounds by uttering pairs of words or sentences for pupils to identify whether the same or different. For example:
ship: ship. They are the same.
sheep:ship. They are different.
The man is watching the car.
The man is washing the car. Are these two sentences same/different.
The second activity the teacher can write minimum pairs of words or sentences on the board.
Tin / thin
cane/ can
Show me the tape/ Show me the tap.
Minimum pairs for stres and intonation patterns.
rećord
recórd
You have á book.
You have à book.
The teacher can give various commands to be followed by pupils ,for example:
Put the ball on the bag
Put the ball in the bag.
Though listening and speaking go together . It is speaking which makes the learner more effective in learning process hence provides maximum opportunity to the students to speak the language . The effectiveness of language speaking is through a greater pupils ' speaking time ratio than teacher speaking time.
Above all it is important to note that pupils should speak the language in meaningful situations (Functional) . Sufficient repetition annd variety for habit formation without creating boredom.
The corrections should be selective and should be mainly based on the drilling of the best form ,whilst persisten crucial errors should be dealt with in a separate remedial lesson.
References
Baruah, T.C(1991)English teacher's handbook.
Sprosty,L(1995) Theaching language arts in primary school.
Byrne ,D.(1983)ENglish teaching perspectives.
The development of aural-oral skills (listening and speaking) has a crucial role to play in second language teaching programme as it comparatively easy to develop other skills namely reading and writing . Basing on the oral foundation of speaking and listening.
The advantages of oral approach are that foundation of learning to read and write especially second language. It is vital to personal development . By providing learning children with tools for intellectual development of comprehension and problem-solving. Furthermore help in the internalisation of grammar ,in addition to easier correction of studies.
The skill of listening helps the learner to understand the spoken language and the teacher in particular as he/she directs the methhod of instruction. The learner recognise both the language speech sounds both in isolation and in combination.
Moreover in the skill of listening the child is capable of distinguishing the language sounds in similar one in his/her first language and understand the lexical meaning of words in context and grammatical meanings of structures. Listening skills make it understandable in the meaning conveyed by stress and intonation patterns.
The listener can able to grasp the mood of the speaker and the theme of the discourse ,that's the speech. Anticipation words and structures from the context for understanding speech at normal conversation speed. The listening skill also enables to guess the meaning of unfamiliar words from the context.
The skill of speaking in other side helps to assist the student to be able to produce the characteristc language speech sounds both in isolation and combination. The use of appropriated stress and intonation pattern. The speaker can use appropriate words and structures to express intended meaning . Through recalling words and structures quickly ,organised in thoughts and ideas logically. In addition can also able to adjust speech according to audience situation and subject.
The teacher can now plan activities for training discrimination of sounds by uttering pairs of words or sentences for pupils to identify whether the same or different. For example:
ship: ship. They are the same.
sheep:ship. They are different.
The man is watching the car.
The man is washing the car. Are these two sentences same/different.
The second activity the teacher can write minimum pairs of words or sentences on the board.
Tin / thin
cane/ can
Show me the tape/ Show me the tap.
Minimum pairs for stres and intonation patterns.
rećord
recórd
You have á book.
You have à book.
The teacher can give various commands to be followed by pupils ,for example:
Put the ball on the bag
Put the ball in the bag.
Though listening and speaking go together . It is speaking which makes the learner more effective in learning process hence provides maximum opportunity to the students to speak the language . The effectiveness of language speaking is through a greater pupils ' speaking time ratio than teacher speaking time.
Above all it is important to note that pupils should speak the language in meaningful situations (Functional) . Sufficient repetition annd variety for habit formation without creating boredom.
The corrections should be selective and should be mainly based on the drilling of the best form ,whilst persisten crucial errors should be dealt with in a separate remedial lesson.
References
Baruah, T.C(1991)English teacher's handbook.
Sprosty,L(1995) Theaching language arts in primary school.
Byrne ,D.(1983)ENglish teaching perspectives.
Methods of Teaching Reading to the infants
There are many methods of teaching reading which the teacher can use in the teaching and learning process.
Code emphasis approach is the alphabertical method which emphasise on learning letters .Pupils read as consisting of the named letters for example risk.
The phonic method or syllabic method is an improvement from the alphabertic and its main emphsis is on the sound that each sound symbol .The teacher should teach phonic alongside a meaning emphasis approach .The Zimbabwean major dialects chishona and isindebele use syllables which is phonic approach.
The advantages of this approach are that children can tackle decoding of new words ,learn letter sound combination which enabled them to be independent readers.
Phonic method helps to read from left to right and it trains spellings.
The weaknesses associated with this approach are that so many English words don't have a constant letter -sound relationships. But chishona has this relationships throughout. Splitting of English words may encourage habits of slow reading. It therefore requires a carefully graded reading vocabulary. Above all no understanding as there is argument on when to use phonic ,some children appear to have problems of linking words and meaning.
Linking together approach is where the whole word method look and say it. This stresses on the whole word and takes it to be indivisible. The learner reads each word as word picture without giving attention to individual letters. This is very possible to English words as second language than in dialects like chishona in which there is need to combine the syllables to make a word and the reader should read each syllable to make the sound of the word.
Children are taught to perceive in wholes (Gestelt theory of learning)The popular look and say method goes along these lines: The phrase and sentence methods .
The major benefits associated with this method are that through the sentence method the child begins to take a sentence making. There are logical methods that are used to introduce children to reading process.According to Gestelt ,the eye tends to see whole before analysing and build a sight vocabulary.
Drawbacks encountered in this approach are encouragement of guesswork,not providing tool for tackling new words. Children are limited to graded vocabulary .Writing is postponed until the children see the presence of a large sight vocabulary words similar in length might confuse the beginner readers.
When teachers use these methods must analyse the interests of children ,their cognitive level and their experiences as a base to develop the reading skill in children.
Code emphasis approach is the alphabertical method which emphasise on learning letters .Pupils read as consisting of the named letters for example risk.
The phonic method or syllabic method is an improvement from the alphabertic and its main emphsis is on the sound that each sound symbol .The teacher should teach phonic alongside a meaning emphasis approach .The Zimbabwean major dialects chishona and isindebele use syllables which is phonic approach.
The advantages of this approach are that children can tackle decoding of new words ,learn letter sound combination which enabled them to be independent readers.
Phonic method helps to read from left to right and it trains spellings.
The weaknesses associated with this approach are that so many English words don't have a constant letter -sound relationships. But chishona has this relationships throughout. Splitting of English words may encourage habits of slow reading. It therefore requires a carefully graded reading vocabulary. Above all no understanding as there is argument on when to use phonic ,some children appear to have problems of linking words and meaning.
Linking together approach is where the whole word method look and say it. This stresses on the whole word and takes it to be indivisible. The learner reads each word as word picture without giving attention to individual letters. This is very possible to English words as second language than in dialects like chishona in which there is need to combine the syllables to make a word and the reader should read each syllable to make the sound of the word.
Children are taught to perceive in wholes (Gestelt theory of learning)The popular look and say method goes along these lines: The phrase and sentence methods .
The major benefits associated with this method are that through the sentence method the child begins to take a sentence making. There are logical methods that are used to introduce children to reading process.According to Gestelt ,the eye tends to see whole before analysing and build a sight vocabulary.
Drawbacks encountered in this approach are encouragement of guesswork,not providing tool for tackling new words. Children are limited to graded vocabulary .Writing is postponed until the children see the presence of a large sight vocabulary words similar in length might confuse the beginner readers.
When teachers use these methods must analyse the interests of children ,their cognitive level and their experiences as a base to develop the reading skill in children.
SCHEMES OF WORK IN THE EDUCATION SYSTEM.
No teacher can effectively teach with out schemes of work ,worse still the syllabus and lesson plans. Schemes of work is the candle light which guides the teacher to follow the education curriculum designed in the society to educate its own members.
The scheme is the breakdown of syllabus into teachable units for a specifically given time frame. For example week ,month or term. In other words it is the amount of materials the teacher prepares and intends to teach during a stipulated period of time.
The reflective teacher has to plan a scheme of work in advance for the coverage of subjects topics or concepts as drafted in the syllabus. It's basically the teacher's own personal plan of what he /she intends to teach why and how will teach over a period of time thus aims ,methods and activities.
Characteristics of good schemes of work should take into account the pupils' needs and interests which allow plenty of activities and involvement suited to their age ,experiences and stage of cognitive development.
Normally pupils in any class organisation usually without strict and precise sreen criteria, they possess different learning levels ,that's slow ,average and fast. Then the teacher must have a variety of learning activites to cater for these differences.
The schemes must be very clear in its various components ,that's the content ,instructional media ,methods , aims and also duration of lessons.
In most developing countries where internet and computer technology is still at its infancy usually schemes of work is done manually written by hand in a hard cover exercise book A4 size ,neatly well covered and submitted to the head of institution normally on weekly basis.On the cover before plastic cover a label of the name of the teacher and relevant personal details are included.
On the first page normally contains timetable ,information of the number of pupils ,thus in terms of their sex and age range. Page two is used to reflect the index of all subjects in the order they are schemed. Anywhere the teacher can device his/her own methods of attaching labels to the first page of each separate scheme.
Then the rest of the scheme book is divided into section for individual subjects . On the first page of each subject or discipline usually contains the index -name of the subject ,topics to be covered ,broad aims of the subject to be achieved.
A good aim contains words which express the philosophy of the subject ,that's it defines the unique of reference which the subject seeks to investigate for example in social science: To develop pupils ' ability to relate to others in the home ,school or community.
The format of the schemes of work like the different of schools or teachers is also the same .Each institution has its own agreed format which they all emphasise.
Generally scheme include the week ending date which in most countries ends on Friday or week's beginning of Monday. The topic to indicate the material to be covered during a particular week .Content derived from the topic and to cover a number of lessons per week.
Sources of matter should show the reference books ,journal ,newspapers,sites or resource persons from which information to be taught taken.
The media or instructional aids are objects ,charts ,pictures,wordcards or anything used by the teacher and pupils to facilitate learning process, to enhance the comprehension of the concepts in question. Please note to be specific in listing media ,value it and name only which is readily available.
Methods and activities enumerate the various steps to be followed when teaching .Lessons should flow sequentially . The activites of both the teacher and pupils to facilitate learning process should include discussion,story telling,dramatisation,demostrate ,practice ,questioning and answering and so on.
Evaluative comments are made at the end of the period for which each topic is schemed normally at the end of the week.The evaluation should reflect the lessons performance ,without bias list what has being achieved and not achieved or successes and failures or strength and weaknesses of the lessons within the same topic. The teacher should then gives possible extension or remedial work as solutions on how she/he intends to rectify the findings.
The scheme is the breakdown of syllabus into teachable units for a specifically given time frame. For example week ,month or term. In other words it is the amount of materials the teacher prepares and intends to teach during a stipulated period of time.
The reflective teacher has to plan a scheme of work in advance for the coverage of subjects topics or concepts as drafted in the syllabus. It's basically the teacher's own personal plan of what he /she intends to teach why and how will teach over a period of time thus aims ,methods and activities.
Characteristics of good schemes of work should take into account the pupils' needs and interests which allow plenty of activities and involvement suited to their age ,experiences and stage of cognitive development.
Normally pupils in any class organisation usually without strict and precise sreen criteria, they possess different learning levels ,that's slow ,average and fast. Then the teacher must have a variety of learning activites to cater for these differences.
The schemes must be very clear in its various components ,that's the content ,instructional media ,methods , aims and also duration of lessons.
In most developing countries where internet and computer technology is still at its infancy usually schemes of work is done manually written by hand in a hard cover exercise book A4 size ,neatly well covered and submitted to the head of institution normally on weekly basis.On the cover before plastic cover a label of the name of the teacher and relevant personal details are included.
On the first page normally contains timetable ,information of the number of pupils ,thus in terms of their sex and age range. Page two is used to reflect the index of all subjects in the order they are schemed. Anywhere the teacher can device his/her own methods of attaching labels to the first page of each separate scheme.
Then the rest of the scheme book is divided into section for individual subjects . On the first page of each subject or discipline usually contains the index -name of the subject ,topics to be covered ,broad aims of the subject to be achieved.
A good aim contains words which express the philosophy of the subject ,that's it defines the unique of reference which the subject seeks to investigate for example in social science: To develop pupils ' ability to relate to others in the home ,school or community.
The format of the schemes of work like the different of schools or teachers is also the same .Each institution has its own agreed format which they all emphasise.
Generally scheme include the week ending date which in most countries ends on Friday or week's beginning of Monday. The topic to indicate the material to be covered during a particular week .Content derived from the topic and to cover a number of lessons per week.
Sources of matter should show the reference books ,journal ,newspapers,sites or resource persons from which information to be taught taken.
The media or instructional aids are objects ,charts ,pictures,wordcards or anything used by the teacher and pupils to facilitate learning process, to enhance the comprehension of the concepts in question. Please note to be specific in listing media ,value it and name only which is readily available.
Methods and activities enumerate the various steps to be followed when teaching .Lessons should flow sequentially . The activites of both the teacher and pupils to facilitate learning process should include discussion,story telling,dramatisation,demostrate ,practice ,questioning and answering and so on.
Evaluative comments are made at the end of the period for which each topic is schemed normally at the end of the week.The evaluation should reflect the lessons performance ,without bias list what has being achieved and not achieved or successes and failures or strength and weaknesses of the lessons within the same topic. The teacher should then gives possible extension or remedial work as solutions on how she/he intends to rectify the findings.
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