29 October 2010

Teaching and learning Language Grammar.

Those who do copywriting emphasise no spelling mistake and correct use of grammar. What is it known as grammar? How to help children to write in correct grammar in their work? By reading this article you may get answered on use the correct language grammar in writing.
Grammar is the degree to which a string of words conforms to syntactic rules when words combined to form sentences.For example ''Enormous jinx in purple sax damed at the front.'' The grammar is not based on ,what is taught in schools ,but on the rules acquired unconsciously as children learn before they learn to read.
Grammar is not based on either one has heard or read the sentence before.And is not based on either the sentence is meaningful or not ,for instance 'colourless ,green ideas ,sleep furiously, or The verb crumbled the milk.'
Ungrammartical sequence may be understood eventhough you know they are not well formed. For example :'The boy quickly in the house the ball found.' The truth of the sentence ,just as untrue sentence can be grammatically correct. Look at this example, ''My pregnant father gave birth to a baby girl."
Grammar can only come in two ways:
•Morphology is the study of the internal structure of the form of words.
•Morphenes in morphological rules determines how morphenes combined into words and these aspects of morphology have aspects synthetics.
Nouns derived from verbs >>walk--walker,work--worker.
Verbs from adjectives >>red--reddiness,blue--bluish.
Adjectives from nouns>>boy--boyish/boyhood,kin--kinship.
Other ways of morphology in combination of morphenes,for example ,'It's hot in October' gives us the state of the weather situation. He wanted her to go. 'To' is making something infinitive positive to the verb go. The cows have worked here. 'Have' is the present perfect tense.
Inflictional morphenes in English have bond morphenes that are grammartical marker such as concepts in tense,number,gender. For examples:
"I walk the whole way to town.
He walks the whole way to town.
Mr Chones walked the whole way to town."
English inflictional morphenes 's' this is the third person singular for instance ,''She waits at home."
'ed' --past tense :She waited at home.
'ing'--progressive tense:She is waiting at home.
'en--past participle:Many eaten the cake.
's'--plural :Many ate the cakes.
's'--possessive :Rudo 's hair is short.
'er'--comparative:Rudo's hair is shorter than Pauline's.
'est'--superative :Rudo's hair is the shortest here.
Irregular exceptions :John hit the snake yesterday.
Syntax is the speaker's knowledge of the structure of phraises and sentences. Knowing a language includes the ability to put words together to from phraises and sentences that express thoughts.
The meaning of a sentence mainly depends on the words that make up the sentence. However the structure of the sentence also contributes to its meaning."Jack strike his thumb". (The word order can be changed but still have the same meaning).
Syntax like all other languages ,English has rules of syntax which reflects the speaker's knowledge of the above facts. Not every sequence of words is a sentence.Sequence of the words that conforms to the rules of the syntax are said to be grammartical well formed.For examples:
"The boy found quickly. (not grammartical)
The boy found the ball. (grammartical)
The boy found in the house.(not grammartical)"
In all languages speakers can distinguish grammartical from non grammartical.
The word combinations can fix up ungrammartical structures to make them grammartical.

Provision of Quality Children Education in School set up

The teacher should encompass children's cognitive needs,physical ,emotional,moral and spiritual needs.
All children must have teachers who plan properly and encourage them to learn.This also extend to issues of gender equality ,equity ,health nutrition,parental and community ,its involvements in the education system.
Physical Environment is an important aspect which must be provided by the school.It helps children to feel safe ,secure and nurtured.Buildings and furniture should be suitable for the children and take into considerations of children 's first language and their community culture.
Recognising Children's Community Culture,the school should respects the child's parents ,cultural identity and human rights in general .All children should have relevant and meaningful education regardless of background,where they live and what language they speak.
Learning in their first language in early grades builds a vital educational foundations and boast children's confidence and self esteem.
The school must be the source of inspiration to promote acceptance and understanding of children who are different and give learners their intellectual and social tools needed to expose out aggression of tendencies of xenophobia ,sexism ,racism and other neglective attitudes.
The convention on the rights of the child must be viewed as a guide towards a more child centred model of teaching and learning, in which pupils are allowed to participate effectively to think and solve their problems on their own.
If for instance the children are required to sit in an overcrowed classroom ,hence their developmental needs are clearly not being fulfilled,then the teacher should an educational practitioner working on bringing normal conducive education system at a school institution guided by the conventions on the rights of the child.
It should have five key elements most of which interweave with each other and should be re-inforced namely:
•Teaching and learning for life.
•Access ,quality and flexibility.
•Gender sensitivity and girl Education.
•The state government as key partner.
•Care for the young child.
Children's Rights and responsibilities are special cases because many of the rights laid down in the conventions of the rights of the child have to be provided by the adult or state,however the convention also refers to responsibilities of children in particular to respect the rights of especially their parents.
The children's reponsibility that accompany their rights are:
If every child regardless their sex ,ethnic origin ,social status ,language ,age ,nationality or religion has these rights then they have the responsibility to respect each other in human way.
If the children have a right to be protected from conflicts cruelity ,exploitation and neglect then they have also a responsibility not to bully or harm each other.
If children have the right to a clean environment they also have a responsibility to do what they can to look after their environment
Children have right to be educated then the obligation to learn as much as their capabilities allow and where possible share their knowledge and experience with others.
All children have a right to a full life ,then they should also lend help to the needy ,the disadvantaged and victims of discrimination so that they also enjoy this right.
If children have a right to freedom of thought conscience and religion then they also have the obligation to respect others' thoughts /religious principles. There are many responsibilites as is their rights...
Tutorial Questions
•What problems can the school teacher encounter when promoting children's rights?
•What are the main characteristics of a healthy and health promoting school?
•Why is access to education a problem for the disadvantaged a society?Give atleast five reasons.
•How can a school teacher uphold and promote the children's rights rectified in the children rights convention?

DEVELOPMENT OF ORAL SKILLS IN PRIMARY EDUCATION!

Language skills ,speech,listening ,reading and writing are very important in the development of communication techniques.
The mutual development of oral skills (aural) is very important in the learning of second language especially when this second language used officially in commercial and other social activities like in Zimbabwe where English is the second language and the most in important in doing business,science and employment communications.It should be also comparatively easy for other skills that's reading and writing.
Oral skills has much benefits as it is foundation of learning especially the second language.It is vital for social and personal development through internalisation of grammar -listening to conversation reflects in grammar of the speech made.A child who practising language orally absorbs this grammar subconsciously. Time and effort is saved as the practice is essential in language learning.The oral practice gives room to a number of repetitions by pupils before get involved in writing exercise. Oral skill practice gives motivation to the slow learner to gain confidence and it is easier for evaluation.
The skills of listening help children to understand the spoken language and the teacher helps to recognise characteristics of spoken sounds both in isolation and in combination. Distinguished sounds of the second language from similar one of the first language help children to understand lexical meanings of words in context and in grammartical meanings of language structures. This help pupils to understand the meaning conveyed by stress and intonation patterns. Pupils grasp the unfamiliar words from the context through getting the mood of the speaker and the theme of the discourse.
The skills of speaking will assist the learners to be able to produce characteristics of speaking sounds again in isolation and in combination. The teacher should use appropriate stress and intonation through use of appropriate words and structures for intended meaning which will help children to reuse the words and structure in meaningful communication.
Ear training is due to the disparity between standard language and second language sounds in pronunciation of vowels ,the first step in developing oral skills to learn to listen for the language speech sounds including stress and intonation sounds.
Activities: Teacher says words in pairs or sentences for the learners to identify whether they are the same or different. Teacher writes pairs of minimum words or sentences on the board for pupils to identify pairs of stress and intonation ,That's highness of the words and lowness ,the difference in words meanings and tones.
Drills chorus give opportunities for initiative repetition as language teaching can encourages shy children.
The disadvantages are that it may disturb neighbours ,children are far away from actual communication and they don't use language composition. The teacher might detect individual at the front and at the back who are not being attended.
In intensive listening children should be taught in detail comprehension of meaning and identification of particular aspects of grammar ,vocabulary or pronunciation.
Extensively teach pupils to listen by gathering information , enjoy stories or plays and innovation use of audio tape materials.
Further Reading
Baruah, T.C(1991)The English Teacher's handbook.

Byrne ,D.(1983)English Teaching Perspective.

Sprosty ,L.(1995)Teaching the language Arts in Primary schools.

DEVELOPMENT OF ORAL SKILLS IN PRIMARY EDUCATION!

Language skills ,speech,listening ,reading and writing are very important in the development of communication techniques.
The mutual development of oral skills (aural) is very important in the learning of second language especially when this second language used officially in commercial and other social activities like in Zimbabwe where English is the second language and the most in important in doing business,science and employment communications.It should be also comparatively easy for other skills that's reading and writing.
Oral skills has much benefits as it is foundation of learning especially the second language.It is vital for social and personal development through internalisation of grammar -listening to conversation reflects in grammar of the speech made.A child who practising language orally absorbs this grammar subconsciously. Time and effort is saved as the practice is essential in language learning.The oral practice gives room to a number of repetitions by pupils before get involved in writing exercise. Oral skill practice gives motivation to the slow learner to gain confidence and it is easier for evaluation.
The skills of listening help children to understand the spoken language and the teacher helps to recognise characteristics of spoken sounds both in isolation and in combination. Distinguished sounds of the second language from similar one of the first language help children to understand lexical meanings of words in context and in grammartical meanings of language structures. This help pupils to understand the meaning conveyed by stress and intonation patterns. Pupils grasp the unfamiliar words from the context through getting the mood of the speaker and the theme of the discourse.
The skills of speaking will assist the learners to be able to produce characteristics of speaking sounds again in isolation and in combination. The teacher should use appropriate stress and intonation through use of appropriate words and structures for intended meaning which will help children to reuse the words and structure in meaningful communication.
Ear training is due to the disparity between standard language and second language sounds in pronunciation of vowels ,the first step in developing oral skills to learn to listen for the language speech sounds including stress and intonation sounds.
Activities: Teacher says words in pairs or sentences for the learners to identify whether they are the same or different. Teacher writes pairs of minimum words or sentences on the board for pupils to identify pairs of stress and intonation ,That's highness of the words and lowness ,the difference in words meanings and tones.
Drills chorus give opportunities for initiative repetition as language teaching can encourages shy children.
The disadvantages are that it may disturb neighbours ,children are far away from actual communication and they don't use language composition. The teacher might detect individual at the front and at the back who are not being attended.
In intensive listening children should be taught in detail comprehension of meaning and identification of particular aspects of grammar ,vocabulary or pronunciation.
Extensively teach pupils to listen by gathering information , enjoy stories or plays and innovation use of audio tape materials.
Further Reading
Baruah, T.C(1991)The English Teacher's handbook.

Byrne ,D.(1983)English Teaching Perspective.

Sprosty ,L.(1995)Teaching the language Arts in Primary schools.

How to Teach Comprehension?

Comprehension involves understanding ,the intention of the author or speaker and going beyond literal ,recorded facts hidden meaning and implications. It involves ability to integrate information in the text what one knows or read and also the ability to apply knowledge gained,for instance in answering questions ,writing summmaries ,retelling the story and so on.
There are four stages which should be followed when teaching comprehension:
•pre-reading stage
•activating learners on knowledge of the subject matter.
•provide any language preparation that might be needed for managing the passage.
•motivate the learners to want to read.
These stages are based on the fact that previous knowledge and experience affect understanding of the material so proper reference before reading will influence the pupils' success.
The techniques of pre-reading stage are use of pictures ,movies ,film strips role plays etc. Word association activities such as semantic techniques.
While reading stage's goals are to help pupils understand the specific content . Pupils understand the art of using language strategy.
This stage requires the teacher's guidance which is achieved through a supply of while reading task ,for instance a list of questions that direct their attention to major ideas of the text. These questions should be simple ,for example write true or false or give instructions for others.
Post reading phase intended to review the content with regard to grammar ,vocabulary and consolidating what is read by relating to new information to the learner 's knowledge ,interests and opinions. To see an achievement level and if there can be application of what had being learnt.The while reading can also be employed.

Types of Grouping in classroom set up and Techniques of management

Ability Grouping is putting pupils according to their performance or ability in learning a particular subject,discipline or an overall performance.
It is based on one's pace of learning as alluded to by Piaget ,Spearman and Thurstone who have written about the intelligence.The surest way of accelerating the process of learning is to allow them to proceed at their own pace ,while providing stimuli in the process .Fast learners will learn best among other fast learners . The learners will need their kith and kin to maximise their learning.
The teacher have to provide different learning task to the groups suted to their pace of learning.
Disadvantage of Ability Grouping includes:
The danger of self fulfilling prophecy which may result in depressing the performance of the pupils.
There is the potential negative labelling of pupils .Errors of selection cannot always be avoided ,misplacement of learners in wrong groups is always possible.
It may encourage eliticism --fast learners are made special at school --creating social class structure miniture (at a lower levels)
The tendency for functionalism to breed in the school arising from feeling of superiority and inferiority.
Mixed Ability:The assumption is that each pupil whether dull or intelligent as something to offer in any given learning environment.No single learner is hopeless at everything as long a he/she possesses acceptable level of normalcy.
Advantages of Mixed Ability, there is potential and less negative labelling of pupils.
Teachers have conduct a wide range of learners and teaching tends to be more diagnostic ,for instance on performance levels.
Troublesome pupils are spread more thinly through the class groups and there is wide social mix in schools.
Competition is replace by cooperation and errors of selection into streans of groups are avoided.
There is mutual respect ,support,understanding and tolerance.
Disadvantages of Mixed Ability Grouping,it increases preparation and marking by the teacher.
The need for more resources and more care of using them and it generates greater troubles and stressed the teacher.
It doesn't sufficiently stretched the fast learners and may reduce their performance to mediocrity and it reduces academic excellency
Management Skills:
Teaching mixed abilities of learners in a class set up there are three forms of management skills which are preparatory ,strategic and evaluation.
Preparatory Skills devise and prepare appropriate curriculum or content for each group.Utilise their interpersonal skills in planning and preparation of course work materials.Make an adequate understanding of their individual differences .
Strategies Skills/Teaching Strategies make use of variety of teaching methods and handle groups tactfully.Be flexible and adaptsble when interacting with individual children.
Evaluation Skills monitor and record progress made by individual learners.Effectively use numerous assessment techniques for individual learners.Make evaluation of your own teaching and being strictly involved in reflective teaching ,for example reflecting on your introduction ,content,media ,etc.
Tutorial Questions
(1)What is (a)mixed ability grouping
(b)ability grouping in the taeching and learning process.
(2)Discuss the use of mixed ability or ability grouping in the teaching of specific subject of your on choice in the teaching of any class.
(3)Explain what you understand by the terms group Dynamics and grouping .(a)How can you use grouping as an effective teaching technique in the teaching in a classroom situation.
(4)Compare and contrast mixed ability and ability grouping as teaching teachnique in a class set up.

Types of Grouping in classroom set up and Techniques of management

Ability Grouping is putting pupils according to their performance or ability in learning a particular subject,discipline or an overall performance.
It is based on one's pace of learning as alluded to by Piaget ,Spearman and Thurstone who have written about the intelligence.The surest way of accelerating the process of learning is to allow them to proceed at their own pace ,while providing stimuli in the process .Fast learners will learn best among other fast learners . The learners will need their kith and kin to maximise their learning.
The teacher have to provide different learning task to the groups suted to their pace of learning.
Disadvantage of Ability Grouping includes:
The danger of self fulfilling prophecy which may result in depressing the performance of the pupils.
There is the potential negative labelling of pupils .Errors of selection cannot always be avoided ,misplacement of learners in wrong groups is always possible.
It may encourage eliticism --fast learners are made special at school --creating social class structure miniture (at a lower levels)
The tendency for functionalism to breed in the school arising from feeling of superiority and inferiority.
Mixed Ability:The assumption is that each pupil whether dull or intelligent as something to offer in any given learning environment.No single learner is hopeless at everything as long a he/she possesses acceptable level of normalcy.
Advantages of Mixed Ability, there is potential and less negative labelling of pupils.
Teachers have conduct a wide range of learners and teaching tends to be more diagnostic ,for instance on performance levels.
Troublesome pupils are spread more thinly through the class groups and there is wide social mix in schools.
Competition is replace by cooperation and errors of selection into streans of groups are avoided.
There is mutual respect ,support,understanding and tolerance.
Disadvantages of Mixed Ability Grouping,it increases preparation and marking by the teacher.
The need for more resources and more care of using them and it generates greater troubles and stressed the teacher.
It doesn't sufficiently stretched the fast learners and may reduce their performance to mediocrity and it reduces academic excellency
Management Skills:
Teaching mixed abilities of learners in a class set up there are three forms of management skills which are preparatory ,strategic and evaluation.
Preparatory Skills devise and prepare appropriate curriculum or content for each group.Utilise their interpersonal skills in planning and preparation of course work materials.Make an adequate understanding of their individual differences .
Strategies Skills/Teaching Strategies make use of variety of teaching methods and handle groups tactfully.Be flexible and adaptsble when interacting with individual children.
Evaluation Skills monitor and record progress made by individual learners.Effectively use numerous assessment techniques for individual learners.Make evaluation of your own teaching and being strictly involved in reflective teaching ,for example reflecting on your introduction ,content,media ,etc.
Tutorial Questions
(1)What is (a)mixed ability grouping
(b)ability grouping in the taeching and learning process.
(2)Discuss the use of mixed ability or ability grouping in the teaching of specific subject of your on choice in the teaching of any class.
(3)Explain what you understand by the terms group Dynamics and grouping .(a)How can you use grouping as an effective teaching technique in the teaching in a classroom situation.
(4)Compare and contrast mixed ability and ability grouping as teaching teachnique in a class set up.

TEACHING SPELLINGS

Spelling facilitates writing.It is a courtesy to the reader.It should be an end in its self,but should further to sentence construction and meaning. Learners should not be given unrelated low frequency words ,thus words seldom used in their writing. It should be done within the context of the writing process and developmental stages of the children.
Stages in spelling development:
(1)Pre-literate stage and letter name spellings. Most first year primary school children in the formal education enjoy writing using pictures drawn from left to right interspaced with letters and numbering form. A -for apple,B -for banana C-for cat.
What pupils at this stage hear the initial letter written or made to complete word for example apple.These children awareness of the final middle letter especially vowels doesn't heard.In the first two terms of the first year of formal spelling not to teach because pupils find it difficult to focus on the whole word. At this stage word awareness is growing. Develop this awareness through labels language experience awareness (LEA)Stories and teaching the letters of the alphabert in meaning word context ,for example word association.
The teacher should let pupils write using their invented spellings accept these since they are not of the formal spelling.Check understanding ask what they have written . Through LEA as look and say methods they will know the spelling word.Let them write as they invent until spelling and pen manship skills catch up with ideas.
(2)Early phonic stage many first grade pupils to start hear the final and middle of the word.The medial consonents and vowels ,for example house,door and window. Formal spellings is not taught ,teacher encourages to write using invented spellings. The teacher continues teaching thr alphabert and LEA .
Inorder raise phonic awareness paying attention to high frequent words.
Teach these words through the use of games like fish-fish. The teacher can introduce activities of sorting words that end in 's' or start with 'th' and those that have 'a' in the middle.
(3)Beginning conventional stage ,after the word and the phonic awareness some children began to learn some words conventionally c-a-t .Begin to show the ability to work common inflected endings ,for example 's ,ed,ing', as in 'walk'.
They also work with compound words and with more common prefixs and suffixs.Pupils begin to be aware of morhemes which means the smallest component in a word,for instance sits=sit†s ,dis-likes=dis†like†s. At this stage pupils begin to edit their own spellings.
(4) The formal stage (conventional)
Pupils 's writing nearly all conventional writing with occassional mistakes. They need continued work in phonics and access to dictionary. Pupils should now circle questionable spellings ''had herd head ,tail tale''. Give the questions such as: ''I --- the news of his death.''
Spellings can be done as group activities or intensive work where informal work instruction is given.
Class activities make use of cross word puzzles ,spelling game ,word scrumble ,targets ,story writing ,selecting correct from destructors ,spelling test,dictionary,alphabertising ,hanging words on a clothes line.
Sources of spelling are common mispelt words,reference words of the root word family for example action. This helps pupils to understand the pattern of words in a language. Vocabulary words used in different subject topics. Ecletic approach spellings for instances 'relatives,animal,vegetable,colour'.
Spelling strategies ,teacher devices ways of remembering letter combination ,copying the word ,home work words,delayed copying,make use of flashcards,dictation,logs write words in a note book and chunging:
(a){TEACHER} can break into words:he,ache,her,hear,eat,at,ear.
(b)IGH: high,thigh,thigh etc
Focusing on trouble some sports embrass,mnemonics never end a friendship. word like soilder can be changed:serve our lord day is ever ready.

Long Term and short term Plans for a Primary School Teacher

A teacher who have a long vision for his/her pupils is likely to acknowledge the high academic performance , children's learning in the classroom.
For pupils to improve in language they need to understand the rules of the language which are:
(1)Spellings ,the guide to avoid mispellings,
(2)Plural formation ,something to do with vowel drop consonants and add 'S'.
(3)Where do we use comma? When listing .
(4)Use of capital letters ,full stop and apostrophe.
(5)Besides using punctuation need to use the four language macro skills which are speaking ,listening ,reading and writing.
(6)Children need to do a lot of creative writing. All types of compositions should be taught and how to paragraph ,make a good introduction ,the body and a conclusion . The skill of letter writing is essential in this contemporary times children must learn to write e-mails both informal and formally.Revise on letter writing on areas like paragraphing skills as a necessity to skip a line .A paragraph is a set of sentences that convey a similar meaning using the words like however,moreover, inaddition etc.
Writing to forums and other articles online.
The use of provocative words must be discouraged as it is inappropriate when writing online and they must understand the basic language of using a computer and browsing the educational sites.
The teacher should also expose children on how to look for information on the internet and download the useful information and save it in their flash. Wide reading helps them too to get adequate information necessary for their Education. The recent research done in Britain reveals that a child who plays electronic games is skillful on spotting the focal point and be attentive when doing things or learning than those not access to these games .So playing games is not harmful but beneficial,a teacher who advises parents or guardians to buy good electronic games which are not destructive or moral abusive and allocate their children a reasonable time to play these games and do other things like studying exercising etc which are also essentials in life.
Short term plans are necessary especially for those pupils who are six months away to write their end of course Examinations. In Zimbabwe after a total of seven years in formal primary education the child is expected to write the seventh year Examinations which is the passport to be accepted in secondary education for the four years where he/she sits for 'o' level and then 'A' Level or college education in technical ,agricultural and teachers' colleges or vocational centres.
How then a primary school teacher's preparations set a short term base for these pupils to excell in these Examinations?
(a)Expose them to past examination papers, because it is their first time to sit for examination,they may be capable of answering them if they given access to the past papers and oriented on the techniques of answering these examinations.
(b)Equip pupils to respond to comprehension questions.
(c)Discourage them from making unnecessary noise and instill discipline in them.
(d)A good teacher is the one who has good working relationships with the colleagues and the community. So that at some point in time can invite them as resource persons to coach them for examination.
(e)Pupils exposed to different examinations set by different teacher from different grades ,clusters and districts levels and exchange them for making to identify the weaknesses found in pupils according to recommendations from different teachers.
Some challenges teacher may face include the following which you can suggest your own solutions:
(A)As teacher you may noticed poor composition writing . How are you going to help them to overcome this challenge?
(B)Suggest two ways of overcoming comprehension problems?
(C)Some schools has problems of having past examinations or textbooks .How would you address it?
(D)How can you ensure an efficient circulation of limited past examination papers?
(E)List grammatical structures that normally gives children problems in making use of correct grammar in an examination situation?

Teaching and Learning of Second Language in Primary Education System!

Almost all societies in the world has a second language learning programme for its children to be able to communicate in other language for one reason or the other.
In Zimbabwe English is the second language and the widely spoken language used by government and in the commercial activities including research and sciences. Most of the educational subjects are taught in English hence its importance to be fully developed in the primary education system.
Krashen(1977) drawn a theory of second language learning and teaching. Using a device which later known as Krashen's monitor model which distinguished the difference between acquisition and learning of a language.
There are two distinct ways of developing competence in a second language. Acquisition is the natural way identical to first language development in children . An unconscious process involving development proficience through understanding and using a language. Whilst learning refers to a process in which conscious rules about language developed results in explicit about the forms of a language.
In this theory acquisition comes about through meaningful interaction in a natural setting. Speakers aren't concerned with form but with meaning. There is error dictation and correction. But with learning error dictation and correction are central as typical in classroom setting where formal rules and feedback provides a basic for language instruction.
What distinguishes the two isn't setting but conscious attention to rules in the classroom language can be acquired and focuses on communication through dialogue ,role play ,games etc. In a natural setting pupils ask others about grammar and can receive feedback from friends.
Monitor hypothesis in the acquired of linguistic system said to initiate atterances when we communicate in a second language conscious learning can function as monitor or editor that checks and report the output of the acquired system. It claims that we may only call upon learned knowledge to correct ourselves.For the monitor to function efficiently there must be suficient time to choose and apply the learned rule.
The language user must be focused on the correctiness of the output and the performer must know the rules.
The natural order hypothesis of the theory emphasise on the acquisition of grammar structures proceeds in a predictable manner. Some rules tend to come earlier than others in the natural order the result is of acquired system to operate free of conscious grammar or the monitor. It is independent of order in which rules are taught in language classes. Those whose exposure in second language is nearly all old side of language classes and don't show a different order of acquisition from those who have heard most of their second language experience in the classroom.
According to this hypothesis they is also a natural sequence for the development of the negative auxilary system ,questions and inflections in language.
Input hypothesis argues that an increase in the learner's compete results from understanding language that contains an element not previously known. An acquirer can move from stage one where to the level of competence to a stage of immediate following along some natural order by understanding language contents.
The ability to speak fluently emerge independently in time after the acquirer has built up linguistic competence by understanding inputs. If there is sufficient quantity of comprehensive input will automatically provided. The teacher shouldn't attempt to teach the next structure along the natural order. It will provided in just the right quantities and automatically reviewed if the student received a sufficient comprehensive or input.
In affective filter model ,Krashen sees emotional state as an adjustable filter that freely impedes input necessary for acquisition. A low affective filter blocks less necessary input and if the filter is up the input is blocked and doesn't reach the Language Acquisition Device(LAD) proposed by Chomsky.
These five hypothesis has its on implications for language teaching which are:As much comprehensible input must be presentable to pupils. Whatever helps comprehension is important ,for example visual aids and exposure to a whole range of vocabulary. The focus in the classroom should be on listening and reading ,Speaking should be also allowed and classroom atmosphere should be always conducive to learning.
The other theory of Beinstern's deficit theory in social class has effect on the second language learning where lower class use the restricted clause ,upper class the elaborated code and the middle class a combination code.

DISCUSSION METHOD OF TEACHING AND LEARNING.

Exchange of ideas between several people is the best process of learning and teaching from one another.
In the classroom environment ,discussion is the best way of promoting conducive learning and convenient teaching situation. It refers to the method of instruction which give pupils an opportunity to express their views or opinions orally on certain issues. One person speaks at a time,while others are listen. It doesn't always involve the presentation of new information and concepts. It also invoves sharing of ideas and experiences ,solving problems and promoting tolerance with understanding. Discussion method is suitable in many situations and can be used in many situations of teaching and learning.There are different forms of discussion that can be used in the classroom.
Kochhar(1985)identifies two major types of discussions which are formal and informal.
Informal discussions are governed by pre-determined set of rules and it includes debates,panels,symposia etc.
Whilst formal discussions may involve whole group or small groups of people divided with the intention of discussing themes . These are not governed by pre-determnined set of rules.Lets focus on the informal type of discussions.
In the classroom discussions involve a free verbal interchange of ideas for all pupils as a whole. Here the teacher is the leader who guides the discussion . Through conducting the discussion process,ask questions and decides on who should speak. This method can be suitably used in the first stage of child book child approach.
This is where the teacher asks about the assummed knowledge through reviewing pupils' experiences .For example Do you have friends? Why do you need friends for? Do you sometimes quarrel with them ? What do you do after have a quarrel with a friend?
Small group discussions is better than a whole class discussion. It encourages more pupils to give their own views through open participation . Pupils are divided into small groups of ,four,five,six ,seven ,eight or nine and given questions or task to discuss and then reportback. Each group should have a group leader who is instructed to control the discussion process and someone who can reportback of what has be discussed.
The group setting arrangements should be in such a way that pupils are relaxed and can hear ,see each otherwell. This type of discussions is more appropriate in the second stage of the child book child approach. Which happens to be evaluation stage where pupils can discuss questions related to the text found in the book.For example in the parable of a prodigal son in the bible pupils can discuss this questions:
•Why do you think father received his son in a positive way?
•Was that the right thing to do?
•Why do you think in such similar situation?
General guidelines to a good discussion should involve a well planning where the teacher should have a clear understanding of the subject topic , content and objectives of the lesson to be discussed.
The teacher's way of giving instructions should be clearly and effectively communicated in an atmosphere that is conducive for free discussions. Please don't ridule or belittle pupils. Rather stimulate their interests by giving positive comments and discourage domination of the discussion by the outspoken members in a group.
A teacher who helped the reserved and shy children is doing good than harm by providing the child with an opportunity to contribute. For example ,''John, what do you think about ? or Helen how do you handle this problem ?''
Stick to the topic and discurage private conversation and should conduct discussions to an end as scheduled.
The major advantages of discussion method are :
◦It teaches interpersonal skills such as understanding and communication.
◦It is child centred through provides an opportunity for pupils to learn from each other,thus encouraging teamwork.
◦It promotes tolerance and helps pupils to understand that they are many aspects or opinions to any one topic.
◦It also helps leadership ,speaking and listening skills.
The demerits of discussion methods includes time consuming ,easily dominated by the outspoken pupils,those perceived to have high sttus. Some pupils may not interested from listening to others and easily get out of hand and lose direction. Moreover some teachers can neglect planning and take advantage of literally this method haphazardly.

A REVIEW OF GROUPWORK AND DRAMATISATION METHODS OF TEACHING

Pragmatic method of teaching agrees to actively involve the learner in his own learning participation of which groupwork and dramatisation are methods which allow the learners to take a great role as far as the teaching and learning is conducted.
Groupwork methods is the dividing of the class into smaller and more manageable units to tackle given task.According to Gwarinda(1993)groupwork is dividing of class into small groups with a group leader.
There are two major types of grouping which are ability where the learners are grouped according to their fast ,medium or slow levels of learning either general or performance in specific subjects. And mixed grouping where the slow ,average and fast learners are represented in each group. Of which Farrant(1988) redefines grouping as homogeneous and heterogeneous which made up of same level of ability and different levels of learning capabilities respectively.
The groups are organised to allow pupils to talk and discuss without much interference of the teacher . The teacher is only to move around monitoring progress and guide pupils as they are discussing. The problems they gather should be of their local environment and their past experiences.
Importance of groupwork are numerous which includes:
♦promotion of interaction among pupils,equal participation and encourages talking.
♦improvement in communication skills.
♦teacher transfers responsibility of learning to actual learners which is good civic training.
♦good control management for the teacher and ability to pick out learners' problems ,needs and progresses.
♦it's much easier to capture learners' attention in their smaller groups and quickly gives feedback for teacher's evaluation.
However the groupwork has weaknesses as it encourages elitism in favour of the medium and fast learners, thus creating social stigmatisation for example dull,dunderheads ,gullibles which consequently cause the feelings of either egoism or inferiority among pupils.
Dramatisation is a presentation of a story by way of acting and speech.. Drama is an act of writing a script to be played for the purpose of learning through acting out its activities and gestures. Hence the drama should be didantic ,that's give a lesson and develop the impact.
There are so many types of dramas which range from dramatic play by little children and requires no prompting from adults ,for instances a boy or girl going zooming saying I am an aeroplane.The impropt drama is when you can hear a story and act using your own words and actions.The scripted dramatisation where an author wrote a story to be acted accordingly. Miming is an action without words, but with much emphasis on body movement ,gestures and acting.These are some of the major categories of dramatisation.
Dramatisation found to have benefits as much as teaching and learning environment is concerned. The advantages comprised the following:
•development of communication skills, as pupils learn to express their emotions in morally accepted ways and deepens their understanding of themselves and others better so that they accept them with their uniqueness.
•active participation promoted by learning through playing is the great source of motivation.
•learners stimulated to think creatively ,provocation of their imagination ,widen their horizons and develop the ability to predict ,evaluate and propose alternatives.

The Project and Problem Solving Methods of Teaching/learning in Modern Education

The progressive methods of teaching promote children to be actively involved in their own learning. As I discussed a lot on this pragmatism in the contemporary formal education system now lets look at project and problem solving methods and have a view of the strength and weaknesses in the education process.
Project is carrying a task from one point to another in a specific time and series of activities.The problem should be identified and the need to carry a project.The problem should be relevant in the real community life and should given hints on dealing with the problem.Pupils must discover solutions to the problem and the project must be of the level of the pupils.
Pupils can be allocated to take project work as a whole class ,if the class is small. The large class can be devided into groups and tasked to take a specific duty in each group.
Pupils should know when the task can be completed,and how the task can be presented.The sources that can be used to carry the project can be consulted and note the problems that may be encountered.
The pupils should be allowed to work freely and evaluate their successes and weaknesses of their project work.
The results of the project should be displayed or posted in the internet or in the school archives for revisit by other other pupils ,for motivation ,to have self evaluation or for pupils' references.
Project work help in learning content from various subject is integrated with pupils experiences .Pupils can be assigned parts of their interests ,backgrounds and talents inorder to arouse their motivational stimulus.
Problem Solving Method:Pupils can take ownership of the activities once they come up with the problems themselves.
Problems should be relevant to pupils experiences and can be acted upon if there is more than one solution. If the problem has only one solution ,pupils are tackling an open ended problem and are not encouraged to come up with many solutions as possible.
Problem solving in real life situations encourage help to be responsible in their life matters It prepares children to develop scientific process skills and become inventors.The fast and slow learners together are motivated to work on their own pace.
However the method is time consuming and affect the coverage of all topics planned and requires lot of funds to have all apparatus needed.It also doesn't cater for individual differences.
The criteria of evaluatuion of the lesson is to acknowledge whether the problem solved
or not ,taking each individual capabilities not overall conclusions.The level of pupils' operation is it appropriate and is the problem related to the pupils' immediate environment.
Advantages of Progressive methods are numerous including instilling critical thinking and trains in problem solving.
It utilize children's curiosity to discover things and is child centred ,thus helping pupils to develop all their senses and skills ,helping them to comprehent ideas and concepts.
Problem solving involves deductive and inductive reasoning as it presents a high level of pupil's motivation.
Teachers are help to discover new knowledge,ideas ,facts ,skills and opinions resulting in high content retention this promote self esteem in children
They enhance creativity and freedom to learn on their own ,thus promoting democracy in education ,since there is more pupil activity and less teacher's interference ,thus helping the learner to claim responsibility of own learning.
Disadvantages of Progressive Methods include to require a lot of preparation on the teacher's part of preparation and actual implementation.It demand lot of money as they require more resources to be used in lessons.
Learners lost focus ,if not propery facilitated ,which consequently led to disciplinary problems as it can be frustrating especially if poorly conducted and producing negative results.

Progressive Methods of Teaching and Learning Process

The proponents of progressive teaching are John Dewey ,Rousseau,Karl Max.They all agree that knowledge is not static ,but that all reality or truth changes.Reality varies from one perceiver to another perceiver and knowledge is dynamic .Children should be allowed to learn freely.Dewey in Kochher(1985:128)says,"Force nothing on child ... give it free movement ...let it go from one interesting to another...we must wait for the desire of the child ,for the conscienciousness of the need." and the idea supported by Locke cited in Rusk(1977:92) anticipated the play in education when says, "children should not have anything like work or serious laid on them,neither their minds nor their bodies will bear it."Progressive method is a child centred ,dynamic modern ,fashionable ,novel in thing based in progressivism where the learner is responsible for own learning.
Students should therefore be allowed to learn freely and should be only assisted to discover new truth.Its main emphasis should be learning by doing.
Progressive methods include discovery or scientific inquiry,experimentation,field work ,project,use of tools like computers,discussion,demostration,groupwork,role play ,research,simulation ,drama,debate,devil advocate,,future wheel etc.
Lets take a look of some progressive methods in depth.
Discovery /Inquiry/Problem Solving Methods:These methods are brainchild of the great progressivist John Dewey who advocates that proper cognition comes through fusion of theory and practice known as "proxis".The most important is that the learner has to find knowledge using own ways,under
teacher's guidance of knowledge.
Pupils actively participate in their own learning through encountering real life situation in which they get first hand information.This enhance learner's
interaction and utilize pupil's curiosity.The teacher acts as mentor ,guides and creates an atmosphere, for active participation by make provisions of real life situations making or providing the equipments,apparatus and resources for pupils to learn with on their own.
Role Play:According to Farrant (1991:134)the application of role play stems from educational reformers like Froebel and Fredrick and Maria Montessorri.
Froebel advocates creativity in pupils whilst charts,maps ,pictures,illustrations ,actual objects ,sketches ,diagrams on the chalkboards which help to keep alive the interest of the classs relieve the monotomy of the lecture method.
The teacher should prepare the content carefully providing an outline for the class to follow .Blend the lecture approach with other learning activities such as group discussions.
Montessori was concerned with the teaching of retarded children.Bruce and Weal (1960:39)define role play as ,"the release of feeling in a therapeutic setting in a variation known as psychodrama.
The role play process provide a life sample of human behaviour that serves as a vehicle for pupils to explore their feelings and gaining sight into attitudes ,values and ways.
This helps pupils to resolve personal dilemma with the assistance of the social group.Pupils are exposed to skills of interacting together in analysing social situations especially interpersonal problems.
Pupils gain some measure of control as they compare their views with the views of others.
The stimulants of imagnation aroused as the experiment beyond the real values and levels of development with dangerous consequences.
It is competitive ,pitching friendly individually or groups against each other.
Lecture method is extremely effective way of introducing pupils into role playing .It is superior technique for demostrating models and clarifying matters that can confusing students.
A short lecture can effectively introduce and summarise the major concepts presented to an opportunity to collect related information and to assemble it into meaning and intellectually manageable framework.
Then pupils can be grouped into activities to play roles in reinforcing concepts and building skills.

DISCOVERY METHOD OF TEACHING AND LEARNING IN MODERN EDUCATION SYSTEM!

Pragmatism as it advocates for progressivism in the education system which emphasises on the learner to be responsible for his/her own learning. Discovery as a way of learning is one of the contemporary method which help the learner to learn by doing.
Recent scholars of thought give a great deal of attention on educational methods in which the child is given room and freedom to discover things within his/her environment for himself/herself.
This basic principle is the major brainchild of the father of progressive school of thought Rousseau. He postulates the theory of naturalism which emphasises that the child's natural self be allowed to develop completely,unfettered by the restrictions usually placed upon it by the traditional school.
The creative and discovery method of teaching and learning allows the teacher to be a facilitator of the learner who should be directed to findout what confronts him/her in the immediate environment so that she/he can create or discover own solutions.
In this way the pupil is capable of solving problems and find answers which are unique to the individuals.
In moral education it is not simply a matter of obedience ,the conscious awareness or rational confiction of moral rightness of an action is necessary before it can be accepted as good. But on this learning system ,it can be achieved if the pupils experienced situations for decision making of opportunities. For example for running an educational institution must also involve the learners especially over setting and adherence to the laid rules.
Most pupils are willing to observe and accept rules that they have actually allowed to be part of their initiation. According to Kolberg's theory of moral development a child at the third and fourth stage of his theory has the sense of rules being made upon general consensus of the whole group and can be observed simply because they are made to help its members. Most primary or secondary school children are at this stage which they feel need to be consulted when rules are set.
The major advantages of discovery learning are:
•It makes children produce original ideas and stimulates imagination.
•Learning by discovery encourages divergent thinking ,flexibility of thoughts.
•Children can develop wider perspectives and insights so that they begin new relationships and patterns in which they discover new and original ways of doing things.
•Opportunities to free express and experiment with things is openly exposed to pupils who learn by discovery method.
•The ability to express oneself is therapentic and experience develops self confidence and self actualisation.

Suitability of Methods of instruction in Education

There are various methods suitable for teaching , learning involving the total learner.Chinoda(1995) defines method as a way used repeatedly by the teacher to present a specific information to pupils. In support of this Curzon (1976)speculates that teaching is a process that involves implementing stratergies that are designed to lead learners to the attainment of certain goals.
Curzon(1976) also insists that the strategies involve motivation of pupils ,leadership communication and control .Attractive learning materials maybe brought in when giving children background information of what to study or discover .This might be the other motivating factor that can play during and after pupils will be given some leadership opportunitiesas well as communication skills needed for learning of the whole child.Pritchard (1977)states that pupils obtain first hand experience of a particular environment through practical work designed to stimulate curiosity and interest .Children are best taught using methods that give them time to visualise things.Primary school children are operating at an operational stage ,where they strictly need to manipulate and visualize ,observs and learnt subjects.
Byrne (1976) says that visual aids help visual learners who find reading difficult .Pupils at primary school need to discover things by look at them and discuss them. It means the methods used in juniour schools should involve taking pupils to the real nature to observe real things.
Bruner in Sund and Arthur (1980)asserts that a juniour is not a bench bound listener ,but should be actively involved in the learning process. Piaget quoted also by Sund and Arthur ,argues that there is no learning without the use of concrete objects of the environment to young children.These supports a teaching method which sees pupils at operational stage as exposed to real life situations in this way pupils will not find it difficulty to grasp concepts.
Advantages :Although it has proved that some authors support the use of media with the use of the local environment .Others have cited both advantages and disadvantages of the methods.
According to Edwards and Fisher (1977) teaching with media helps to acquire the needed concept much easier and faster .It is very true because the teacher will not have problems in explaining since media will be on the other hand helping to explain ideas .This also promotes pupils to ask questions.
Disadvantages:According to Farrant (1980:375) imported equipment has not been designed for topical conditions and it may be difficult to get spares in the event of breakdown some of these media used in schools .That is the major problem in schools of low income families who are not even capable of buying expensive quality media.
From these findings again it is deduced that use of media is found to be one of the most effective methods of enhancing teaching and learning at juniour level.In other words it realised that some of the learners facing challenges as far as using media is concerned.The assumption is that instrutions are not clear to the children or children did not get enough time to use media. Pupils participate well if they are taught using media and the use of two or more senses in learning can bring about good results in the field of education, since pupils think critically because they are given activities and media to use. Language should be suitable for the level of the learners.

METHODS OF TEACHING AND HOW IT PROMOTES EFFECTIVE LEARNING SITUATION

Teaching is one of the oldest profession ,which dates back to the early existence of human species.Teaching is concerned with imparting knowlege from one person to another following pedagogical content knowledge.The methods used were slowly
upgraded according to the findings from traditional to progressive methods.
The teacher has content knowledge and the knowledge how to teach(pedagogy) whose
combination is called pedagogical content knowledge.
The teacher has to modify the information from a texbook,magazine,newsletter ,website in to a specific subject content and the subject matter knowledge inorder to communicate with learners.
This means sequencing content in the most logical way so that a hierarchy of concepts are built and the maximum interaction with learners such that the content has a meaning in the lives of the learners.
The effective teacher has to be able to displays attitudes that promotes learning ,for instance interests being knowledgeable and enjoy the work through effective use multi-media in lesson delivery and take consideration of learners' feelings.This means to motivate them to persevere in the situations that they are opting to give up.
Teaching Methods these are strategies or ways by which content is put across to the learner for objective and aims to be achieved and development of skills.
Curzon(1994)says ,methods used in a particular branch of activities.Methods can be regarded as ways,approaches,strategies ,procedures,mode,modus operandus manner ,means etc.Methods put the learner at the centre of learning whereby right interests and needs are considered.
Whilst methodology of Instruction this refers to practices ,techniques ,rules routines and procedures employed by the teacher in order to assist learning. Curzon(1994)expresses ,methodology as body of methods used in particular activities. The significance of instructional methodology can be summarised as follows:
It is aimed at assisting learning of dividual (human development)students, offers systems of activity which can affect individual human development and is based on knowledge of how learners learn.Also take it into account the essential position for further learning.
Teaching cannot be divorced from the world in which the learner lives.The teacher should be able to reveal to the learners(children) to learn to be able to make sense and meaning out of the world.Learning can be introduced to children through use of real life media,play or discussion.Reveal reality to the pupils by means of relavant examples and encourage pupils to discover reality by giving them assignment and use of specific instructions.
Methods and Classroom Instructions:There are numerous methods as there are teachers in the world .However ,it is very important to note that :
Each method is best on some theorectical base or belief or research.The scope and variety of methods have been greatly enhanced by technology.Each method has its own rationale ,techniques objectives ,merits and demerits.These teaching methods are closely linked and inseparable.
Factors Influencing the Selection of a Particular Method:
•Learners' ages,abilities and health.
•Materials whether they are new,abstract ,concret ,familiar etc.
•Objectives to be achieved through which best ways to use or effective use of media.
•Physical environment ,do we have the suitable environment for learners to learn from necessary materials.
•Cost ,how much funds needed to incur from school and is the money available.
•The teacher is really prepared to use the method s/he chooses ,does personality suit the method and can demostrate.
•How much time do you have for the method ?Does the time allow for the method to be effective.
•And is the method interesting or motivating.