17 October 2010

Disaster of Non behavioural in lesson objectives

In lessons it is the duty of the teacher in every lesson to plan and set objectives which are SMART that is specific, measurable,achievable ,realistic and timed. However although it is everyone's wish to make all the objectives achieved in in class by all learners.It is difficult to be 100% successful .Nevertheless objectives need to be successful.
Mager puts objectives as a description of a performance you want learners to be able to exhibit or carry out before you conclude them to be competent.An objective is the outline of intended result of instruction rather than the process of instruction itself.
The curriclum designers advise teachers to state objectives in behavioural terms.That is outline what the learner is expected to do.
The purpose of objectives is to form a sound basis for selection or designing of teaching aids ,make clear of the content to be taught ,the teaching methods ,learners' organisation and activities.
Objectives form a sound basis for assessing and evaluating the teaching and learning process for its success.The objectives is a candlelight to see what remedial,extention work a teacher can take to help learners.The purposes of objectives in Education are endless ,but the above help to realise why behavioural objectives are advisable.
A well stated objectives is the one that succeeds in communicating an intended instructional result to the learner.One must ,after reading your objective,be in position to produce a student who performs according to the consistent of your stratergy. The best statement is the one that clearly state the intented goal.
In many cases teachers state objectives as aims which can not distinct the SMART. When teaching we are concerned with knowledge,skills , atittudes or moral values which are applied in diferent situation of life.A statement of objectives is useful to the extend that it specifies what learners will do or perform to demostrate any change in behaviour,knowledge ,attitudes ,moral value or mastery of a skill.We only determine what knowledge ,behaviour , attitude or morality people possess by what they do or say.Concepts which are concrete easly identified by using it.For example playing a guitar,moulding pots,practising soccer skills,sculpting.and so on.Whereas abstract concepts such as morality,attitudes or knowledge are observed through doing something that represents the meaning of abstractions.
How do you identify that learners understand,appreciate or have faith or master the moral concept of forgiveness? It is that which makes learners to do a demostration of the above and must be stated as an objective.As a guide to predict what the learner should be able to do at the end of the lesson.The respond must be in action words that clearly specify the action like run,smile ,write draw etc.
Perfomance are in two groups which are observed during the specific lesson through seeing or hearing and assessment such as giving a task during the lesson or at the end of the lesson.The second group can not be observed directly .The performance are mental invisible or internal.This is where teaching of Religious and Moral Education(RME) ,Social Studies etc are done.We can only ask our learners to say or do something visible for us to measure the success of mastery in such type of performance.Whenever the performance is internal add an indicator behaviour by which the main performance will be known for instance in RME give learner different situations to show how they can apply forgiveness ,for example in personal judgements or love.In languages how should be able to identify misspelt word in a given list(underlined or circled ) In Social Studies learners can be given a task to do community research of topic rules and laws.You easily identify whether learners are meeting the objectives and learn of their their community.
If statement doesn't state a performance it isn't an objective.It is something else.If objectives state a performance,it become easy to assess the success in teaching.A teacher who knows where he is going stand a better chance of getting there and know that he had arrived than the confused one.
The evaluation made easy as we can able to state the strengths and weaknesses of teaching methods,media,learners' organisation and activities so the extension and remedial work is planned on.We plan remedial action based on the learner's perfomance.
It is an educational and professional crime to evaluate the lesson which state non-behavioural objectives as they do not specify what the learner will do.How will you find out that learning had took place,the teaching methods were successful and the media is effective? How would you justify the time taken in a lesson,teaching appreciation of melody? When its end is set by a guide to measure the depth of appreciation.Why at first you set yourself in the task of teaching appreciation of positive moral code etc? There is a need to have clear objectives.

I conclude that it is important for all teachers to attend refresher course on the value and significance of setting SMART objectives.

Assessment Objectives Guide Teachers in Preparing Students for External Assessment.

Assessment objectives should be put into consideration.Students' work or performance is judged and desired outcome of an effort has been achieved.It is now the question of how assessment objective guide teachers in preparing students for external assessment.Later we discuss the assesment objectives for ordinary level course in Zimbabwe when meeting the syllabus and national examinations in Food and Nutrition.
According to Farrant(1980)"assessment is the process by which a quality of an individual work or performance is judged." Gay (1979) defines objectives as,"the desired outcomes of an effort ,the results intended at the end of a series of activities."
Therefore assessment objectives help the teacher in the coverage of the syllabus content.The teacher is guided in a way that can make use of topics and introduced in a sequential manner and that consider actions of the level of the pupils as well as the degree of difficulty has be given.
Assessment objectives is the candlelight for the teacher to break down concepts into weekly objectives and by so doing the teacher can formulate daily objectives.These daily objectives ensures effective break down of concepts into teachable units on the assessment objectives.
When formulating the weekly objectives ,from the assessment objectives in conjunction with the syllabus content, the teacher will be constructing the school syllabus, and the school syllabus is a mechanism that the teacher uses to ensure the proper implementation of the official syllabus.
The assessment objective is the yard stick for the teacher to develop necessary skills for the pupils ,as per according to the assessment objectives.These skills are later going to be tested in the external examination and it is the right of teachers to make sure that these skills have been achieved by pupils so that will not be difficulties in applying these skills in an examination situation.
Assessment objectives can be known as process objectives.This is because these are on going process that the teacher uses.These process objectives describe outcomes desired during the excution of the effort.In other words tey relate to development and excution, and then at the end when these efforts are achieved then these assessments objectives ,according to Gay(1979)can be called product objectives.
These product objectives describ outcomes intended as a result of the effort.Process objectives don't typically involve student behaviour ,desired student outcomes are almost ,always product oriented.Process objectives deal with strategies and activities when are intended to result in an achievement of the pupil's skills.These assessment objectives give direction to all subsequent activities and achievement of these objectives is ultimately measure .Ways of measuring these assessment objectives will later to be discussed.
Assessment objectives give to the demands of assessment of degree of progress at any point in time ,facilitate communication concerning an effort's purposes and form the basis for assessment of an effort's achievements. Thus ,it is critical that the best possible objectives both technically and interms of content be selected or developed .It is on the assessment objectives that at the end of the achieving process or assessment objectives ,skills should have been developed in pupils.
Assessment objectives also serve as the guide line for both the learners and the teacher.Students do what axactly expected of them ,thus allowing pupils to focus their efforts appropriately .They give direction to all instructions and to the subsequent measurement of these assessment objectives, in such a way that they will be able to evaluate themselves, to check whether what they would have taught is correct.

PURPOSE AND METHODS OF EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT!

Assessment and testing are important aspects in monitoring the progress of learners in teaching and learning environment.
According to Farrant(1988)assessment is done to test how much is known about something that has been learned by pupils. It impose weaknesses in learning and monitor teaching on what is not be taught ,maintain standards and discriminate between of different ability. In addition assessment predicts the suitability of individual children for particular courses or careers in future. Children are selected for further education in higher education or professional courses using their assessment scores. Above all assessment motivates both teachers and pupils in the teaching and learning progress.
Therefore the assessment is the tool which provide factual information about learners' abilities and performance which enables meaningful comparisons and classifications to be possible.
Most of schools assess pupils fortnightly or on termly basis for careful and objective assessment using reliable standards. As a teacher you may pleased by the child who is taught for example addition in mathematics and is mastering the techniques of his/her above age.
In using assessment technique the teacher plan revision tests of what they have done some other time. Its like a revision of the main concepts they have learnt in previous lessons. Because they will be used in the future lessons as a base from which to develop. Thus following the teaching principle which says, from known to unknown or simple to complex. It is also primordially of great significance to note that the 'known' concepts will guarantee learning progress because learners are not being pluged into jungle of unrelated novelty.
The teacher's assessment if carried out by carefully planned testing it provides a feedback of how successful is the teaching process on how well the learner is performing and where particular strengths and weaknesses lie. It is also a good yard stick for fairly reliable indication of the learner's progress.
However the school must conduct staff development work shops to help teachers to propery set well structured tests to eliminate questions which have more than one possible answer in multiple choice. Or questions which are frequently misunderstood by pupils or such questions which give advantages to certain group of learners on certain factors rather than those being tested.
Farrant(1988)provides rules that apply when compiling tests at school:
(1)Questions should test learning rather than memorisation.The question should not depend on knowing the answer to another. (2)Avoid poor wording or tricky questions that is any way confusing.
(3)Questions should have only one correct answer or be open ended and should cover as as much as possible of the learning to be tested rather than a few selected areas.
(4)Questions should be presented with the easier ones first, and then ask children to attempt all questions.
(5)Set a time limit only when speed is of great importance in an element of what is being tested. Otherwise allow the time required by slow learners to do all they can manage.
(6)Don't make answers offered in multiple choice questions, so obviously wrong that they can exclude by pupils without careful thoughts.
In primary schools teachers should test pupils with an objective and purpose to produce good results for children who can able to further their higher education and further their talents with confidence and clarity of the strengths in education system.

PURPOSE AND METHODS OF EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT!

Assessment and testing are important aspects in monitoring the progress of learners in teaching and learning environment.
According to Farrant(1988)assessment is done to test how much is known about something that has been learned by pupils. It impose weaknesses in learning and monitor teaching on what is not be taught ,maintain standards and discriminate between of different ability. In addition assessment predicts the suitability of individual children for particular courses or careers in future. Children are selected for further education in higher education or professional courses using their assessment scores. Above all assessment motivates both teachers and pupils in the teaching and learning progress.
Therefore the assessment is the tool which provide factual information about learners' abilities and performance which enables meaningful comparisons and classifications to be possible.
Most of schools assess pupils fortnightly or on termly basis for careful and objective assessment using reliable standards. As a teacher you may pleased by the child who is taught for example addition in mathematics and is mastering the techniques of his/her above age.
In using assessment technique the teacher plan revision tests of what they have done some other time. Its like a revision of the main concepts they have learnt in previous lessons. Because they will be used in the future lessons as a base from which to develop. Thus following the teaching principle which says, from known to unknown or simple to complex. It is also primordially of great significance to note that the 'known' concepts will guarantee learning progress because learners are not being pluged into jungle of unrelated novelty.
The teacher's assessment if carried out by carefully planned testing it provides a feedback of how successful is the teaching process on how well the learner is performing and where particular strengths and weaknesses lie. It is also a good yard stick for fairly reliable indication of the learner's progress.
However the school must conduct staff development work shops to help teachers to propery set well structured tests to eliminate questions which have more than one possible answer in multiple choice. Or questions which are frequently misunderstood by pupils or such questions which give advantages to certain group of learners on certain factors rather than those being tested.
Farrant(1988)provides rules that apply when compiling tests at school:
(1)Questions should test learning rather than memorisation.The question should not depend on knowing the answer to another. (2)Avoid poor wording or tricky questions that is any way confusing.
(3)Questions should have only one correct answer or be open ended and should cover as as much as possible of the learning to be tested rather than a few selected areas.
(4)Questions should be presented with the easier ones first, and then ask children to attempt all questions.
(5)Set a time limit only when speed is of great importance in an element of what is being tested. Otherwise allow the time required by slow learners to do all they can manage.
(6)Don't make answers offered in multiple choice questions, so obviously wrong that they can exclude by pupils without careful thoughts.
In primary schools teachers should test pupils with an objective and purpose to produce good results for children who can able to further their higher education and further their talents with confidence and clarity of the strengths in education system.

COUNSELLING IN THE SCHOOL EDUCATION ENVIRONMENT!

School children need to be counselled in some situations they may counter in life problems or challenges. Anyone in life can need to be counselled at one point in time.
Counselling is a help relationship which it is communication driven. It involves an interpersonal relationship between someone actively seeking help and a trained person who is willing to give that help so that the person who is seeking a counselling makes an informed decision.
Counselling affords the client an opportunity to explore ,discover and clarify ways of living in life in a manner that satisfies the person being counselled.
School children are shy , nervous and anxious people who need a teacher with qualities of a good counsellor. A counsellor who is confident ,attentive ,in other words a teacher who is an active listener ,being tactful ,observant and can reassures the child that he/she can get the much needed advice.
The counsellor shows much understanding ,when can encourages children to make their own informed decisions ,by not imposing them to take decisions as they can be imposed from the counsellor.
A counsellor maintains eye contact to draw attention of the child so that the sense of trustworth or honest is being developed. Calm keeps confidentiality if the child is counselled in a well organised situation ,through giving a chance to explain in a temperate and non judgemental communication.
A teacher who is not prejudice and also is concerned with gender sentitivity is in a position to counsel learners in an acceptable manner.
The modelled teacher as counsellor is polite ,disciplined and knowledgeable about the environment he/she operates ,for example rural or urban ,or well diverse in different economical status of community families.Thus being sensitive to cultural activities,considerate to understand the children 's culture needs.
The qualities of a good counsellor in a school environment must be presentable ,examplary ,empathetic and creative to suit in every child's needs at some various situations in his /her learning environment.
Types of counselling are determined by the number of children based on their needs,interests , developmental age or maturity in terms of infants,juniours or idolesents.
A teacher can counsell children as a group or one on one index client ,thus dealing with individual 's concerns at a time.
Some children need counselling as a family which may involves a homogeneous group of children who share same problems and might benefit from shared therapy and common solutions that come out of that counselling for example people live positively with HIV or orphans.
Developmental age group involves:
•Child counselling which involves working with children below the age of 13.
•Adolesense or teenage counselling is specifically for those at their rapid ,fast phase of development .These children need counselling to the problems they may encounter at this crisis age.
•Adult counselling is generally for people who are no longer in primary or secondary school education,possibly community members or colleagues. They may need counselling or may consult you as teacher.
•Some people may need oriented counselling so they are looking at the purpose for which they expect counselling to be done.
•The preventive counselling is done to have preventative skills as to avoid a certain outcome to occur ,it may also involve problem solving therapy.
•Bereavement counselling focuses on children's sense of loss and attendance to the grief for example loss of parents,property etc.
•Spiritual counselling involve helping children to be refers to their religious leaders.
•Supportive counselling helps those people living in desperate inevitable situation like being living with incurable diseases for example HIV&AIDS, physical challenges etc, to cope with the challenges or problems.
*There are so many forms of counselling like marriage ,guardianship etc.
Inconclusion a teacher who is looking to be a counsellor should consider the importance of being confident , calm,observant. Who maintains eye contact and keeping confidentiality. A teacher who cannot decide for the child ,a non judgemental and not prejudiced. A counsellor who knowledgeable with zeal of understanding , emphathetic and cultural sensitive.

COUNSELLING IN THE SCHOOL EDUCATION ENVIRONMENT!

School children need to be counselled in some situations they may counter in life problems or challenges. Anyone in life can need to be counselled at one point in time.
Counselling is a help relationship which it is communication driven. It involves an interpersonal relationship between someone actively seeking help and a trained person who is willing to give that help so that the person who is seeking a counselling makes an informed decision.
Counselling affords the client an opportunity to explore ,discover and clarify ways of living in life in a manner that satisfies the person being counselled.
School children are shy , nervous and anxious people who need a teacher with qualities of a good counsellor. A counsellor who is confident ,attentive ,in other words a teacher who is an active listener ,being tactful ,observant and can reassures the child that he/she can get the much needed advice.
The counsellor shows much understanding ,when can encourages children to make their own informed decisions ,by not imposing them to take decisions as they can be imposed from the counsellor.
A counsellor maintains eye contact to draw attention of the child so that the sense of trustworth or honest is being developed. Calm keeps confidentiality if the child is counselled in a well organised situation ,through giving a chance to explain in a temperate and non judgemental communication.
A teacher who is not prejudice and also is concerned with gender sentitivity is in a position to counsel learners in an acceptable manner.
The modelled teacher as counsellor is polite ,disciplined and knowledgeable about the environment he/she operates ,for example rural or urban ,or well diverse in different economical status of community families.Thus being sensitive to cultural activities,considerate to understand the children 's culture needs.
The qualities of a good counsellor in a school environment must be presentable ,examplary ,empathetic and creative to suit in every child's needs at some various situations in his /her learning environment.
Types of counselling are determined by the number of children based on their needs,interests , developmental age or maturity in terms of infants,juniours or idolesents.
A teacher can counsell children as a group or one on one index client ,thus dealing with individual 's concerns at a time.
Some children need counselling as a family which may involves a homogeneous group of children who share same problems and might benefit from shared therapy and common solutions that come out of that counselling for example people live positively with HIV or orphans.
Developmental age group involves:
•Child counselling which involves working with children below the age of 13.
•Adolesense or teenage counselling is specifically for those at their rapid ,fast phase of development .These children need counselling to the problems they may encounter at this crisis age.
•Adult counselling is generally for people who are no longer in primary or secondary school education,possibly community members or colleagues. They may need counselling or may consult you as teacher.
•Some people may need oriented counselling so they are looking at the purpose for which they expect counselling to be done.
•The preventive counselling is done to have preventative skills as to avoid a certain outcome to occur ,it may also involve problem solving therapy.
•Bereavement counselling focuses on children's sense of loss and attendance to the grief for example loss of parents,property etc.
•Spiritual counselling involve helping children to be refers to their religious leaders.
•Supportive counselling helps those people living in desperate inevitable situation like being living with incurable diseases for example HIV&AIDS, physical challenges etc, to cope with the challenges or problems.
*There are so many forms of counselling like marriage ,guardianship etc.
Inconclusion a teacher who is looking to be a counsellor should consider the importance of being confident , calm,observant. Who maintains eye contact and keeping confidentiality. A teacher who cannot decide for the child ,a non judgemental and not prejudiced. A counsellor who knowledgeable with zeal of understanding , emphathetic and cultural sensitive.

Language Policy and Interpretation in Zimbabwe Education System

Language policy dictates that all instructions in the education system must be in specific languages for learner to learn so that they become responsible citizens .
Zimbabwe education system is the product of their colonial masters the British culture.In the schools most of instructions should be given in English from the third grade upwards, whilst the infants should be taught in their mother's tongue(first language) until they mastered the English (second language)Although debates done outlawed the emphasis of adopting English as the only official language for educational instructions. English is still the widely spoken and official language in most of the government and commercial activities.
According to this current curricular thinking children begin from principle taught on language skills that they possess when entering school ,so that they should begin with local languages as medium of instructions.
Zimbabwe has three major languages widely spoken around the country, English ,Chishona and Ndebele.Plus a host of other dialects. The local dialects are recommended to be widely used in infant classes for them to understand as they gradually introduced to the dominant English as a second language in Zimbabwean society.
English is more important not because of how it was influenced by the colonisers in Zimbabwe,but it has become a major international language widely diffusion to all continents of the world by trade,colonisation and conquests. It is also the USA's political muscle and economical powerhouse that caused English language to be even more diffused language than through the former British colonies and its dominions that counts for its wide dominance over other world languages.
The worldwide expansion of English means it is the widely spoken language in the world with over a billion speakers and another billion as second language English speakers. Hence there are many varieties of English in the world today.
In Zimbabwe it is the language of instruction ,trade and official discourse.Education sector is of no option except to produce people who will suit the needs of the industry,commercial and world demands.
The key principle for English is promoting interaction of four language domains thus listening ,speaking ,reading and writing.
Language competence delived by increasing ranging and variety of real needs through something of genuine interests and purposes of audience. Meaning working is aided when pupils and teachers are collaboratively working and sharing of experiences.
The teacher's role in language learning is complex and responsible ,it is not concerned with the income cash of skills ,but organisation of those language activities for real purposes from the skills acquired.
Few aspects of English language can be mechanically marked and formal language exercise has little or no effect on ability to use language. However more attention should be given to the place of the spoken word in learning. (Protherough 1999:34)
Finally many pupils are taught as a system and consequently they don't understand the nature of their mistake or how to put them right. What is learned specifically is the language itself , in a variety of its manifestations rather than facts of that language.

Development of Reading Skills in Children's Primary Education Process.

Teaching a child to listen and speaking the language is not enough to develop them to be prowess in all communicative skills which need reading and writing skills. Reading is the platform to help developing writing skills. How reading skill develops in children learning?
Preformal reading stage is reading readiness activities of development when either through maturation or previous learning or both ,a child can read easily and propery. It influences the social or emotional attitude to language and also a background for success in the beginning to teach reading.
Visual perspection is to understand what one sees and involves the use of pictures for the learners to interpret. Pictures has to be put from left to right direction. Sorting and comparing objects and pictures.
Visual discrimination is the ability to see likeness and differences in objects. Sorting shapes they can also sort letters have loose letter cuts ,matching games or drawn shapes. Children may spot the odd one out ,in visual rhythms they use strings cards.
Visual memory recalls what one had to see thus several objects on the table and children to pick them as they called them.Two large drawings one should be more detailed than the other one. Sequencing these drawings and remove the initial ,for example TOOK and remove it.
Auditory discrimination is the ability to notice similarities and differences. This one later sound association involved sound processes in reading. Sounds around us have a game like teacher says 'stop , smile'. It helps children to listen attentively.
Auditory memory is the ability to remembers sounds images through reading a lot of repetition on the basis of remembering the sounds of the letters,reciting ,rewritten stories. A story with a phrase being repetited once more competing rhymes ,for example ,'the earoplane fly high to sky.' 'You will eat the right fruits.'
Directions and order give orders to the pupils whilst listen after that order they follow it. Hower monitor eye and motor coordination.

Educational Subnormal Children (ESN):Genetic Potential and Influence of Chromosomes

These children have mental deficiencies.Stones (1978:301)says," educational subnormality has been applied to those children whose attainments are lower than 80% of the attainments of average children of the same age." This children can do some mental exercises.Usually ESN is for the children in special schools or classes.In these specialised areas these children get individual attention from skilled and specialist teachers ,which results in these children benefit immensely.The major causes of this retardation is because of natural circumstances which are poor genetic potential and organic disorders.
Genetic Potential:The poor genetic potential is the mental disorders passed on from parent to child.
At fertilisation of the egg in the uterus the genetic characteristics passed from parents to the off-spring of individual parents are transferred into the embryo through genes.The genes transfer many human characteristics which are the biological blueprints of physical and mental features found in the parents. These characteristics are passed from generation to generation. A child can inherit mental disorders from parents and these account for mental retardation.Some cases are because of chromosomal defects(A chromosome is a thread in every animal or plant cell carrying genes).
Many of the defects result from ancient causes ,thus abnormal genes are passed on through ancestors who carry them,but may themselves not affected.
When two such people who carry some abnomal genes mate ,25% of their offsprings are likely to be defective mentally or physically. This happens frequently when two close relatives conceive ,for example first cousins ,children of brothers or sisters. As result of this may be amaurotic idiocy(amaurosis =blindness) The child develops blindness ,paralysis and idiocy (extreme stupidity) after birth,but is normal at birth. More oftenly the child may remain normal for two years ,after which the consequences may be fatal by the time /she turn five years old. The disease is common in communities which culturally promote marriage within their family lineage.Amaurotic idiocy is found among different races around the world .In most cases the effects of these abnormal are felt when the child is changing from childhood to adulthood. In this circumstances the development of idiocy is less rapid.Some recessive (weak characteristic passed on by means of genes to later generations )genes may cause microcephaly ,thus the brain is very small(half the normal weight at times),but the general health of the child may look good.Certain types of spastic (physical disbled because of faulty links between the brain and the motor nerves)paralysis which affect the legs and arms are a result of heredity.Heredity can cause defects like imperfect development of eyes (microphathalmia)associated with mental defects.
If there has been a recent changes of gene in the parent ,severe defects of a single child in a large normal family may occur.This commonly happens when someone suffers from a disease in which there is tumor (disease growth in some part of the body like in the brain)formation which is accompanied by epilepsy and mental defects.Children whose deformities caused by recent changes of genes have deformed craniums ,clumped fingers and toes,patchy pigmentation in their skins can be caused by enlarged nerve endings .All these children suffer from mental defects.
Influence of Chromosomes:Chromosomal defects cause mongolism.Child(1978:200)uses the example of Kallik family to explain the influence of heredity on retardation:
"A certain Martin Kallikak had children by two women ,one was feeble-minded,the other was of normal intelligence .The feeble-minded mother gave rise to higher proportion of feeble minded descendants whilst the mother
with normal intelligence had no feeble-minded children at all."This therefore concludes that heredity plays a major role in causing retardation .However its role is not certain like environmental factors and their influences felt at the same time.Either heredity or environment factors cause this handicap.
Influence of Radiation:Irradiation shown in animals which exposed to radio&active material by doses of X-rays and numerous drugs such as selenium applied to developing embroys have produced in-born deformities ,examples are cleft palate and bad development of the kidneys.
If a pregnant woman therefore exposed to irradiation in early pregnancy may damage the foetus. The Nagasaki and Hiroshima atomic bombs destruction is the good example.Major deformities are believed to be exposure of mother to radio-active rays

Deafness Delicate motionally Handicaps Maladjustments Physically Handicapped and Autistic Children

Deafness is genetically inherited.Accidents can cause deafness in some children. The numbers of deaf children seem to be higher than those of blind,in the world.Deaf children are slow learners because their depend on lip reading and signs only.Where possible hearing aids do help ,but deaf children take twice as much time as children who can hear ,to do the same academic task.
Delicate Children have heart problems and cannot stand the vigorous activities of the playground and classroom of the ordinary school.These children need special protective arrangements and they can be retained in normal classroom if they don't pose serious problems.
Physically Handicapped Children suffering from other defects ,other than hearing and sight problems include the crippled children with damaged joints or limbs.These physical deformities may be as result of either genetic inheritance ,or taking of dangerous drugs by the mother during pregnancy or damaged due to exposure to the dangerous environments.These disabilities hinder the educational progress of the child.
The genetic and physical damage cause the child to be maladjusted.The physical handicaps caused both by genetic and environmental factors.The child with physical disabilities have difficulties in learning if the environment is not helpful.
Children have tremendous quality of quickly recovering.They can do well even when they come from difficult homes and have suffered serious illnesses.The child who is seriously handicapped and the environment is totally unhelpful can not adjusted to improve learning.
Therefore teachers play an important in enabling children to overcome their physical problems and learn not only to help themselves ,but also to become useful and respectable members of the community.Teachers should be aware of these children and offer them valuable help in the classroom.
Emotionally Handicaps
Maladjustments :Emotional disturbance is common in children.Child (1978:273)says,"It would seem that upwards of 15%of school children in primary schools in Britain experience strong,debilitating (weakening)influences from their emotional stress".Although the writer not yet reveiwed the current figures many countries including Zimbabwe do not measure emotional disturbance in children.However there are lots of children suffering from emotions.
Maladjustment is when the child 's emotions such as anger ,tears,lack of concentration ,changing moods and irresponsibility become so grave to the affection of social development.This implies that behaviour is judged in terms of a society's existing standards.
In adolescents for instance, in search of adult standards ,values and priviledges may appear to some be suffering from behaviour disorders.,whereas parents may take it to be healthy development sign.Child in African society can be considered maladjusted if he challenged his father on family issues ,but nowadays such children are now considered to be intelligent.The symptoms of maldjustment range from mild to severe and don't necessarily signify maladjustment .Some can be dealt with by parents.Only severe cases need to consult specialists.
Autistic Children from the word auto means self ,it is a specific handicap.Autism is caused by a disability in interpreting sensory experiences,particulary hearing and seeing. Symbols are difficult to detect ,hence children have great difficulty in acquiring language.
Some causes of autism are brain damages and inherent emotional bleakness(mental bare and cheerless).Autistic children lack communication contact because of their sight or speech between themselves and others,like their teachers and parents.
The speech is grossly distorted and retarded. Perceptual experiences such as sights ,sounds ,heat and pain may be ignored ,while others like music and regular beats may be hyponotic.

PUPILS' ORGANISATION FOR LEARNING!

Group Dynamic is the scientific study of the interactions within small groups and relationships of group members to one another.The aim is to discover the negleties,rejects and isolaties.These interactions and relationships are flexibles they aren't permanent. Hence there is need for a change in grouping strategies.Therefore grouping is situational.
According Gwarinda(1993)grouping ,involves diving the class into small groups of six or so pupils often with a group leader.Pupils should be given the chance to be group leaders.
Groups maybe permanent for all subject or only for certain subject.Subdividing a large class group into small manageable groups for effective teaching and learning. Most of teaching is effective by groupwork ,since class sizes are too large for teaching purposes.
Situations Suitable for Grouping
When material resources are limited.
When there is no enough time to reteach a concept.
The task is too heavy for the one person.
Development of social values ,for instance cooperation.
The methods of demands so ,for example discussion.
By nature the learners doesn't allow them to work alone ,like the physically challenged or slow learners.
When the teacher is unable to manage individually working learners.
Strategies for Grouping
It should be done before the lessons .Grouping can be done:
Using the name list:
The teacher picks names from the list from a systematic or in a random manner .
Following sitting arrangement:
Pupils count up to five and arrange them ,those who say one form a group and the twos and so on.Then arrange them in that order.
The learner's interest:
All pupils with the same interest are put in the same group ,for example in music pupils who are interested in soprano are put in the same group.
Friendship
Those who are friendly to each other are put in one group.
Ability
Pupils of the same ability are put in the same group that's slow learners grouped together and fast learners on their group.
Sex
Boys can be separated from girls or they may be mixed in a proportionate.
Personality
Learners of the same personality are put in the same group

Advantages of the Grouping Methods
There is the sharing of the ideas which makes learners learn in a very short time.
Difficult tasks cannot be handled by a single hand and they may need the movement of furniture.
Material resources can be shared ,learning is made simple.
Social values can be developed , for instance tolerance,selflessness,teamwork ,cooperation etc.
The competition in group activities makes them work harder.
Various materials can be used by different groups at the same time.
Talents in the learners can identified ,like leadership qualities can be exploited.
It promotes pupils participation.
Disadvantages of Grouping
It is time consuming from orgsnisation to the working in group activities.
Learners are frustrated when ideas are not accepted.
Mob-psychology may lead to time wasting ,influence may result in wrong tasks being done.
Relations may sour if members are not compatible.
Individual talents may be overshadowed,this means one's potential is suppressed in groupwork.
Accountability becomes a problem because no body is to be responsible for any wrong thing done .It may obviously led to poor results.
Assessing group tasks can be very unfair.
The method increases the chances of descrimination.
Superiority and inferiority may develop.
It may be the harbour activities of laziness and bullying.

MAINTAINENCE OF DISCIPLINE IN THE CLASSROOM

Discipline brings order for the sake of learning to take place ,it is so important since it also enhances interaction amongst pupils as they engaged in meaningful well organised mood of learning. Discipline is one of the influential factors for making a learning environment conducive. In constrasts indiscipline disrupts normal flow of lessons,vandalism of classroom property and irritates most of the pupils to be scared and then drawn away the atmosphere of learning which makes education impossible. Therefore indiscipline is unacceptable in the schools and its classrooms so it is important for the teacher to stand firm against all aggressive tendencies of misbahaviours at school and in the classrooms in particular.
According to Cohen and Manion (1977)discipline is promoted by power and authority.
Power as is used by the teacher denote ways in which learners are subjected to the general consensus of their teacher. The teacher can exercise this by inflicting pain ,imposing restrictions ,withdrawal of necessities to name just a few .However the teacher in the classroom is found to be too extreme to make pupils submisible to his/her needs alone.
On the other hand authority involves an appeal to an impersonal normative order or value.It regulates behaviour on the part of those who comply.
When dealing with misbehaviour the teacher should be aware of what is taking place in the classroom everytime. Brown (1975) states signals to look out for the teacher when using disciplinary method:
•Face:Teacher should face the pupils and pupils face their teacher ,so that the teacher can check the kind of attitudes on facial expressions of the pupils to judge whether interested or not ? Are they awake, when lessons are taking place?
•Response :How do pupils react when asked questions?
•Activity :Are they busy on the assigned task or they are not kept themselves busy to the needs of their learning activities?
•Head orientation and Posture: The teacher should be able to interpret the bodies figiting of learners and command them to be well-tuned towards the lesson and their heads are not turned elsewhere to be easily attracted outside. On posture the teacher should monitor children to directly facing the subject of the lesson.
Some pupils has tendencies of drifting away from the lesson unnecessarily as misbehavioural attitudes.Some developed mannerism that disrupt their attention. When dealing with repeated misbehaviour the teacher should try to establish an eye contact with concerned child. The child should strategically positioned in the place where he/she can directly face the teacher. Otherwise one should not waste time by looking at a pupils who is facing elsewhere.
Misbehaving children in their small group should sit proximite to their teacher such that when the teacher wants to control them can just touch or give signs such that can not disturb others when doing their work.
The teacher should also invite responses from mischievous children ,the question must be task centred . A task-centred question would be one which open ended such that the child give own views ,for example,'Why was this action correct, John?' Rather than teacher centered question like:'What did I say ,John?. This is because teacher centred question children try to grasp what their teacher says as they came to believe that whatever said by their teacher is the only correct (Cohen and Manion 1977).
Depends on the influence of the teacher's authority ,the teacher can use this method of advancing towards misbehaving children while the lesson is taking place. However it is also necessary for the teacher to be friendly to the pupils in the teacher pupil relationship. This again is not rule out exercising authority on disciplining the class. Otherwise the teacher and pupils become equal in this respect no-one will directs and controls the pace of learning procedures ,thus compromising the education system of children. A teacher who is friendly to pupils but adopt firm principle is regarded as the good teacher.
Inconclusion class control is determined by different things which some may not necessarily nothing to do with misbehaving as they are beyond the control of classroom discipline.

TEACHERS SHOULD BE AWARE OF CHILD ABUSE TO HELP SCHOOL CHILDREN COPE OR AVOID ABUSE!

Any form of aggression or ill treatment directed to a minor is known as 'child abuse'. It is a non accidentally injury nor other physical harm which is afflicted to a child. The act of either omission or commission that endangers or impairs physical,personal,cognitive and health development.(Zimbabwe school psychology services)
Child abuse is in the form of physical,emotional,sexual,neglect,bullying ,prostitution and many other forms.
Children can be physically abused thus bodly harm which inflicted upon a child through beating ,hitting whipping and unauthorised corporal punishment. 
The injuries range from cuts,burns ,braises or fractures.
The consequences might be death or permanant disability. Abuse may be also non accidential injury which include administration of drug ,for example medication or sedation.
Emotional abuse are aggressive behaviours that make a child feel unwanted or rejected. This can be done by with holding necessary warmth and affection.Or with holding of basic need like food or madical treatment when it is due to sustain her/his life. The threats may be teasing,ignoring,discounting or failing to appreciate the child's effort. The child may receive persistant criticism,beliking and humiliation which intilling a sense of uncontrollable fear through threats and shouting. The major signs are retardation on emotional development and verbal attitudes.
Sexual abuse is the most common form of child abuse which is inappropriate sexual behaviours. It occurs when a child is used by an adult or an older who is more knowledgeable on sexual pressures.
Statutory rape is where an adult get into sexual intercourse with a child with or without his/her consents when is under 16 years of age. The age range may differ from one state to the other. Rape is a sexual intercourse done with a child who is above the statutory age without his /her consent. Please note both boys and girls can be raped.
Incest is the performance of sexual intercourse action of the members of the same family ,for example father and his duaghter ,both siblings or mother and her son. And sodomy is sexual intercouse of both males .When it includes a boy and a man it is known as molestation.
Child sexual abuse may be attempted penetration or non penetration sexual activity ,for instance rubbing penis between the child 's thighs or genital organs. It may be sexual activities of fondling a child's sexual sensitive body parts ,thus genital,breasts,buttock and so on.
Oral sex with a child using genital and the mouth. A child may be involved in masturbation with an adult. Exploitative use of a child in prostitution or any other unlawful sexual practices like showing a child pornography.
Neglect is failure to provide a child with adequate nutrition,shelter,care and attention .An act of omission when the caregiver fails to give physical care and supervision. The child fails to be given the care for the developmental needs and this results in retardation in growth and cognitive development.
Bullying is a willful and conscious desire to hate or frightens other children. The child can be teased ,pushed or forcibly taking away of belongs from him/her .It is an act hostility and rejection.
Signs and symptoms of the abused child range from a behaviour of excessive crying or an increase in irristability ,tamper and tandrums.
The abused child may fears a particular person or object. The disrespctiful behavioural aggression towards others ,poor school performance ,bed wetting or soiling of pants. Oftenly some may act in a sexualised play or withdrawal from social contact.
Some physical signs are unexplained swelling ,bleeding ,pain ,irritation at anal area. Some may contract sexual transmitted infections(STIs) such as sores discharges ,frequent itching of genitals. Symptoms like unxplained headaches,stomarch pains or difficulties in completing the given work or task.

TEACHERS SHOULD BE AWARE OF CHILD ABUSE TO HELP SCHOOL CHILDREN COPE OR AVOID ABUSE!

Any form of aggression or ill treatment directed to a minor is known as 'child abuse'. It is a non accidentally injury nor other physical harm which is afflicted to a child. The act of either omission or commission that endangers or impairs physical,personal,cognitive and health development.(Zimbabwe school psychology services)
Child abuse is in the form of physical,emotional,sexual,neglect,bullying ,prostitution and many other forms.
Children can be physically abused thus bodly harm which inflicted upon a child through beating ,hitting whipping and unauthorised corporal punishment. 
The injuries range from cuts,burns ,braises or fractures.
The consequences might be death or permanant disability. Abuse may be also non accidential injury which include administration of drug ,for example medication or sedation.
Emotional abuse are aggressive behaviours that make a child feel unwanted or rejected. This can be done by with holding necessary warmth and affection.Or with holding of basic need like food or madical treatment when it is due to sustain her/his life. The threats may be teasing,ignoring,discounting or failing to appreciate the child's effort. The child may receive persistant criticism,beliking and humiliation which intilling a sense of uncontrollable fear through threats and shouting. The major signs are retardation on emotional development and verbal attitudes.
Sexual abuse is the most common form of child abuse which is inappropriate sexual behaviours. It occurs when a child is used by an adult or an older who is more knowledgeable on sexual pressures.
Statutory rape is where an adult get into sexual intercourse with a child with or without his/her consents when is under 16 years of age. The age range may differ from one state to the other. Rape is a sexual intercourse done with a child who is above the statutory age without his /her consent. Please note both boys and girls can be raped.
Incest is the performance of sexual intercourse action of the members of the same family ,for example father and his duaghter ,both siblings or mother and her son. And sodomy is sexual intercouse of both males .When it includes a boy and a man it is known as molestation.
Child sexual abuse may be attempted penetration or non penetration sexual activity ,for instance rubbing penis between the child 's thighs or genital organs. It may be sexual activities of fondling a child's sexual sensitive body parts ,thus genital,breasts,buttock and so on.
Oral sex with a child using genital and the mouth. A child may be involved in masturbation with an adult. Exploitative use of a child in prostitution or any other unlawful sexual practices like showing a child pornography.
Neglect is failure to provide a child with adequate nutrition,shelter,care and attention .An act of omission when the caregiver fails to give physical care and supervision. The child fails to be given the care for the developmental needs and this results in retardation in growth and cognitive development.
Bullying is a willful and conscious desire to hate or frightens other children. The child can be teased ,pushed or forcibly taking away of belongs from him/her .It is an act hostility and rejection.
Signs and symptoms of the abused child range from a behaviour of excessive crying or an increase in irristability ,tamper and tandrums.
The abused child may fears a particular person or object. The disrespctiful behavioural aggression towards others ,poor school performance ,bed wetting or soiling of pants. Oftenly some may act in a sexualised play or withdrawal from social contact.
Some physical signs are unexplained swelling ,bleeding ,pain ,irritation at anal area. Some may contract sexual transmitted infections(STIs) such as sores discharges ,frequent itching of genitals. Symptoms like unxplained headaches,stomarch pains or difficulties in completing the given work or task.

THE QUALITIES OF A GOOD TEST IN PRIMARY EDUCATION!

Education is concerned with behavioural change,moral,cognitive and skills development. To assess these developments and progresses teachers must test the pupils fairly and effectively with the four major characteristics of all types of tests in mind ,thus comprehensive scope of a test ,its discriminatory ,validity and reliability.
What is a test comprehensive scope? It is that the test should cover the subject area fairly thoroughly.Unfairly treated examination paper consists of very few searching questions on the small part of the syllabus.This type of testing is very unfair to those children who are very acumed on particular part that they will spell disaster when examined on the other part.
Such lack of balance when setting a test makes it comparatively invalid and useless.
The hypothesis is that probably the examiner is tired,lazy or ignorant such that he/she resorts to set one further question worth 20 marks to make it total of 100 marks on the expense of some concepts in the sections of the syllabus .For instance in the grade seven mathematics examination papers ,fractions,money ,distance or time is not test instead concentrating on addition , subtraction,multiplication ,division without including some of the mathematical concepts need to be tested. It should be clear that comprehensive tests are not risked pre-examination question spotting.
Discriminatory test is that which differentiate between best and worst performers according to the scores obtained and spread from top to bottom. However the test items should be relatively and fairly simple to avoid heavy concentration of scores at the bottom or so easy that enables everyone to easily score unnecessary high marks. A test should cover evenly selected questions that are testing the potentials of all learners and be in the ability range and ensures good distribution of marks that satisfies streaming of learners according to their abilities. An interquartile range of 25 or more out of 100 as a normal distribution graph is good.
A discriminatory test is not that one which is a mixture of easy ,too difficulty and beyond capacity questions to the ability level of the pupils.Such test lost its reliability ,so test should be 50% possible to children,if 5% of pupils get it right it is too difficulty to be useful and above all if all scored 95% it is too easy to be useful.A badly worded or trick test is not useful.
A test should be valid. It should accurately measure a particular ability and have a clear purpose.Mixing the objectives of the test oftenly invalidates the test, for example the teacher test two pupils in composition writing.One pupil Susan got 18/20 and John got 10/20 okay.John's work is of poor handwriting ,but good grammar and spelling ,so the teacher deducts to marks at every paragraph . Susan's work is neat well presented in good handwriting and awarded extra two marks for neatness. The result therefore is that John will get 15/20 and Susan will get 18/20. In this case is the test valid? The teacher instead marked handwriting as shown above which invalidates the test. Hence the teacher should set and mark the test according to the purpose and avoid attempting to test more different skills at the same time.
The realibility of a test can be set to the same group,marked by different markers from different backgrounds at the different times and scores are roughly the same. This is a consistent test. It reliability is because of the objectives and independent from personal feelings,attitudes ,hatred,love or favouritism of markers.
Reliable test maintains its consistency in the scores ,even if repeated later ,but it may of no value if it is not valid. Reliability is not helpful if we are not clear of what we are measuring. However test reliability is very low if its is not faithful in its validity.Oral tests and mental aptitude tests some are both doubtful in its validity and reliability.
Tests which are comprehensive,discriminatory ,valid and reliable are useful if adopted by teachers in the teaching and learning process.

The Role of the Teacher for Community Development

We identified the functions of the school to the community.However there is no schooling
without the teacher.The teacher is an important element in the organisation of the school.
Community development is the process of social and economic transformation of the society .The community members are at the centre of transformation from the beginning to the end .They are deeply involved in all the programmes.The people plan projects which they want to carry out.These projects originate from the needs and interests of the community .
The projects such as:
•Transformation of Agriculture currently done in Zimbabwe for rural farmers to conserve the resources such as soil ,water and plants.
•Development of Arts and crafts backyard industries mainly found in the locality ,such as drawing and painting,sculpting,mat -making and basketry,bamboos for making furniture,weaving and embroidery.
•Developing a system social services for example recreational facilities for the community through schools .
•Providing infrastructures such as roads,dams ,horticultural projects ,markets for the support of local community for its enterprises and other activities.
These activities are carried out inorder to improve the socio-economic conditions of the community's standards of living. They also integrate the various communities into social life as it help communities to help themselves that is to be self reliant as they contribute to global development.
The process of transforming education requires the mobilisation and planned use of careful management of the available materials and human resources.
The knowledge of the existing situation and understanding of the forces that promote or frustrate change in the desired direction.For example political ideologies and communication breakdown. Political ideologies exists where the community suspects the intentions of the government policies because it is not a government of their interests.
Communication breakdown occurs when the government fails to keep the people fully informed about its proposed policies and activities.The knowledge of the machinery for implementing and monitoring the desired change activities.
Therefore community development calls upon the services of many agencies and people including teachers.So what is the role of the teacher in community development?
The teacher is to act as a change agent,who facilitate social ,economic and political change in society.
It is the responsibility of the teacher to facilitate the integration of the school with the life of the community in which the school is located. The teacher can effectively do this by improving the mechanism for expanding and equalising acces to educational services and mobilising local resources to meet basic needs of the community.The task is too big for the teacher alone.Hence the teacher should share it with the community ,the school and other stakeholders.
The teacher as a respected professional in the community can confidently call upon the services of community civic groups ,parents to build schools ,clinics,roads,bridges,recreational centres and other projects to serve the local community.Already many communities around the world together with local teachers are exercising their intiatives to mobilise local resources ,such as providing labour,funds and building materials to expand local educational and health facilities.These services provided by the teachers are appropriate to the needs of the society.
The teacher is also expected to possess knowledge of the local community and organisational skills in order to be successful as an agent for change, as is expected to:
•be identified by local community and to become strong part of the struggle for better life.
•be aware of the development activities in both local community and the society as a
whole.
•keenly be sensitive to problems as there is need for social change and relate his role in the process to facilitate it.
•realise and appreciate the importance of working with different groups of people found in the community to facilitate development in the community.
•accept and utilise the services of local expertise and experience in the teaching profession.
•utilise the services of local organisations and international agencies involved in the community development efforts.
•aquaint with overall developmental goals and identify teaching role and that of the school to the community.
•implement innovations in many areas of community and social development and to serve as a source of new ideas in community development.

The importance of environment as a teaching and learning media

The use of media in the teaching and learning is very important .The relevence of materials in learning environment.
Rwambiwa et al(1982)once say a fieldtrip does require adequate preparation as in the case of teaching media.The subject of the trip must be approached and prepared by the teacher .This is done to prepare the conducive good relations,documents if possible with illustration charts and other aids may be made to orient pupils to the precise nature of operation. An environment with background information which helps pupils to have a dealer understanding of first hand observations maybe set.
Wall charts and pictures with related information create a very good learning environment which satisfy pupils' curiosity to discover things.
Pictorial media set an environment which also stimulates the curiosity in the pupils to explore real life situations ,well before they are in the actual field of observing nature .Forrester(1989) advocates that the teacher should allow time for children to look through the pictures ,this will stimulate their curiosity .Therefore the teacher is urged to make or look for pictures relating to the content to cover and make pupils opertised to discover more real field.Background of what to look for will have been improved by doing so children will then be taken out to observe ,manipulate and dtructurise or draw real things of the world.
The library centre in class is also available area of learning process.Before hand ,teacher and pupils might make booklets and cards with pictures and attractive shapes so that pupils may observe and discuss to get the much needed curiosity to discover more in real life situation.
Schonell(1961) puts that supplementary to the books and other learning materials provided by the school pupils and teachers can prepare booklet in attractive shapes and colours and put them in library corners.These booklets stimulate children's curiosity to read and discuss what may be contained in them .It will be the teacher's duty to put relavent picture and informatiom to the pending lesson or trip.
Implications to the teacher in the teaching and learning environment:
The children should be exposed to a variety of methods and materials so that they develop and understand .
Questions asked must not be to abstract .I subscribed to the idea ,that Educators should use also fieldtrips,videos,internet whatever available.This can help pupils to understand better.
Language should be according to the cognitive development level of the learners.
A conducive learning environment should be created and the use of other approaches where learners are grouped according to their academic performance and capabilities ,thus fast and slow learners are put in the same groups.
From the findings it is deduced that use of media is found to be one of the most effective methods of enhancing teaching and learning at juniour level.In other it is realised that some of the learners facing challenges as far as using media is concerned.The assumption is that instrutions are not clear to the children or children did not get enough time to use media. Pupils participate well if they are taught using media and the use of two or more senses in learning can bring about good results in the field of education, since pupils think critically because they are given activities and media to use. Language is used should be at the cognitive level of children.

THE PHILOSOPHY OF TRADITIONAL AFRICAN Education SYSTEM

Why it is necessary to study African Education? What principles that formed this type of Education? These are some of educational questions you may ask when exploring African Education system.
I want to establish that there was African traditional Education and there is still there this form of Education system which had contribute to modern Education system in African societies.
The west colonialists had demigrated and even went further rejected anything and everything Africans believed as a way of their Education culture. Their purpose was to dehumanise the Africans Education system so as to make for themselves easier to totally subjugate them as they regard it as primitive or informal Education, whilst others refer it simply as socialisation or child rearing. This resulted in this form of Education resorts to its existance as traditional Education and is not Education at all.
According to Sifura(1990) Education is the whole process by which one generation transmits its culture to succeeding generation or the process by which people prepare to live effectively and efficiently in their community.
Tafuwa and Babs (1974:15)say ,''Every society whether simple or complex has its own system of training and educating its youths and Education of good life has been one of the most persistant concerns man throughout history.''
Therefore traditional African Education is by the indegeneous people of Africa even before the western colonised their continent. The difference between western Education and traditional African Education is being regarded as formal and informal respectively.
The scope of Traditional Education is its cultural process since it is all the cultural forces and surroundings that the child rely on to educate him/her. It is an approved way of life as lived by majority of members. The group values were built into the individual. This Education system prepared each child for the roles he/she had to play in the community and society. So its Education is from infants throughout to adulthood and for life to death. One never ceased the learning culture ,that's Education from womb to the tomb.
The teachers are anyone ,everywhere as the need arouse during the daily interactions and didn't rely on formal instructions mainly because the focus is on practice ,thus acquisition of practical living. This is an apprentice type of Education where the learner learn as working or performing the job.
Individuals has to get practical skills plus an outstanding of their place in the society,gender,roles and to be aware of what the environment offered them and others.
The principles of this informed traditional Education ,its functionalism or preparationism means Education is by means to an end where the end product is the functional in society. Children are prepared for future roles as adults. Here immitative play is important ,for example the boys played with wooden spears or build huts whilst girls make mats and dolls.
The activities prepared them for functional responsibility of husbands and wives. They also learn to plough ,plant and weed crops to produce food.
Holisticism is whereby an individual totality is considered on mental ,physical ,moral ,social ,spiritual etc. Children are given Education encompassing their intellectual ,moral ,spiritual,emotional and physical development.This make learning an integrated experience in methods and content. They intellectually study their local history ,legend ,environment ,poetry ,riddles ,proverbs ,storytelling etc.
Moral stories of upright people and a strict code of mankind ,female relations. They play physical games and dances whilst practice spiritual rituals to respect and appease the dead.This is African ontology in their belief that a person dies ,but his soul is still living and collaborate with the living.
The community is built as one and the individual come second to the community because the community provides one with a spiritual ,sexual ,social and intellectual identity. Hence the individual has to conform to the community 's demands.
The essential values that are passed on to the next generation ,for instance sanctity to life ,hospitality ,honesty ,sacrifice ,obidience ,humility ,respect for elders.
Most of these essentials centred on progation of life and of acquisition.And the transmission of people's heritage in the form of beliefs ,totemic system is to ensure continuity and survival of the clan (identity).

The Role of objects as Media in the Teaching and Learning Environment!

The use of media in the teaching and learning is very important .The writer is focussing on the use of media in the teaching and learning realia or
Objects as Media
According to Bruner in Sidon and Ugwuegbu (1980:16) is of the view that real is anything that we can see and touch .
This implies that all the things that we can get hold of and see are part and parcel of real materials.As a result children can learn very well when such type of media are used in schools.This motivates children to want to learn because they will be working with concrete media.
Sund(1998) suggests that objects can be brought into classroom and give them to pupils .In this case pupils can discover more about the properties of such given objects.Children benefit a lot from discovering themselves rather than to try and explain from abstract point of view.
Dewey cited in Sund (1980:70) as the leader of progressive education states that we learn by doing ,touching and reflecting on what we have seen.This is clearly indicating the idea that they have seen the thing and are able to produce something similar or something of that nature.
Pupils should be exposed to real things so that there could be no misconception upon particular thing.Take for instance some teachers might want to draw a house using free hand .The teacher might get wrong somewhere thereby instilling wrong things in children. But then if it was the case of showing them real house they can produce something which is excellent on their own.Piaget in Sund (1980 :77) agrees with Bruner that there is no learning without the use of concrete media to young children.
Teachers should plan their work having children in mind .It is true that pupils found in the concrete ,operational stage should always be taught with media which should be suitable for the infant level.This way pupils will not find it difficult to grasp the concept under discussions.Plowden quoted in Faster(1972:5)says that children were learning while using objects as media is used in the lesson is more of a success than a failure .This supported by Patsanza(1994) says that,humanists believe that meaningful learning doesn't take place unless the total learner is involved .Therefore teaching methods and learning activities should be child-centred .There are various methods and activities suitable for teaching and learning which involving the total learner .The concrete media enable pupils to understand the topic easier.This implies that maximum use of objects should be employed .This means there will be effective discovery made by pupils having a look at those objects.
Advantages of Media:According to Byrne(1976:120)This means that those pupils who have a long sight are bound to learn much easier when pictures are used as a media .Pupils will gain a lot by mere looking at the pictures and able to interprete what is being potrayed on the picture given.
The other advantage is that pupils are presented all with motivation piece which in this case is a picture .Forrester (1989:4)states that, allow time for pupils to look through the picture .This will stimulate their curiosity .Farrant (1980)also emphasises object thing is important because the learner will have gained skill on how the media is made.
Disadvantages:Ausubel went on to point out that some concepts need to be taught better with other types of media .This means that suppose a teacher is teaching about something which will be for away from the local environment s/he can resort to pictures and objects will not be applicable in this case.Unfortunately a pictorial type media has more downfalls than advantages ,to support this statement Farrant (1980)points out that pictorial media doesn't cater for short-sighted pupils .This is true that some pupils can't actually distiquish a fawl run and a kennel.

Types of Media used in Teaching and Learning for its conducive Environment

Media are any devices that assist an instrutor to transmit to a learner facts,skills ,attitudes ,knowledge and appreciation or additional materials used when using a particular teaching method to make learning easy ,as it intend to help both the teacher to teach more reflectively and the learner to grasp the concepts more effectively .
There are four types of media which are print,visual ,audio and audio-visual
Printed Media:These include text books,magazines,newspapers,journal,bulletins ,web pages ,blogs etc.
They help learners to get more information through reading widely ,research and providing more enjoyment from various sources of facts.
It is important to identify all the reading materials before issuing them to children.The use of internet should be monitored both at home and school to protect children from being involved in illicit materials which may take them away from their learning focus.
Guide children from what to read so as to achieve the aims and objectives of the subject.
If there is variety of material selection the teacher must identify that suits every learner's capabilities ,ie slow ,medium and fast .

Visual Media: These composed of photographs,graphics,pictures,maps ,models ,spacemen,game puzzle,artfacts,wall charts etc.
These make visual impression to the learner.They attract pupils' attention and aid concentration,as they illustrate meaning more directly and quickly than through verbal explanation.
It was discovered that a single picture is equivalent to 1000 words in meaning to a listener.It cuts down unnecessary talking time hence supplement the voice.
Visual impact in learners enhenced making associated language memorable.The real meaning of words is helped by seeing concrete objects.
The simplification of colour and shapes as it clarify its complexity.The learner then stimulated to think diligently and ask questions and enhenced learning environment 's conducivity.
Avoid too much use of visual as they may take pupils' attention because of colour admiration.
Audio -visual Media (Video and film):
Because of the visual element is attractive and commands attention.
The sounds produced is much easier to understand the facial impressions,gestures ,physical background shown and learning becomes doser to real life situation.
It is very important to preview any programme and assess its worth to class situation,time,and its content value and how to operate it more effectively to benefit all children in learning the content.
Model/Relia/Sample:These attracts attention and concentration because of being concrete in nature and appeal more to children ,since they are at concrete operational stage.
They are also good at first hand experience where pupils use hands on approach.
They mustn't scaring pupils ,but user friendly.Live ones should be return to its habitat after use to consider the ethical aspects.
The Resource Person/best Speaker:An expert in the area of speciality with useful skills ,who can be a craftman ,elderly woman,police officer ,Artist etc.
The pupils 's attention and interest is captured as they want to know much about the man's skills.The teacher did something good by bringing the community to the classroom situation.
When the teacher should plan ahead and inform the resource person in time inorder for him to prepare the lesson and give the limits so that the objectives of the lesson to be achieved.The school administrators should also informed to receive a visitor.
Selection of Instructional Media:It is teacher's responsibility to select appropriate media available and
interrelates the components to the curriculum by considering the following:
should be purposeful that is help to achieve the objective of the lesson.
should be concrete to be understood by learners and entertaining.
media should be challenging and stimulating in thinking and varied or diverse in intersts abilities of the pupils.must be affordable ,less costly and effectively co-relate subjects of the curriculum.

The Role of Media in the Teaching and Learning: importance of content!

The use of media in the teaching and learning is very important. The appropriate of content,how it influence choice of media?
Grant (1960:243) says ,"teachers should have good textbooks for they can't be expected to know everything ."Grant expressed that materials to be taught is found in the written document and the Educational practitioner should select appropriate information for the level of the learner and convey it.The teacher being a class practitioner will simplify the learning content to suit the learner's cognitive level.
Module(2002:65)states that,"Learning is personal ,purposive self motivated and requires that teaching material be appropriate to the level of the child's level of development .Textbooks should contain content and activities that are self explanatory and child-centred since subjects seek to find out how man encounters." Subjects are said to be good only when it has activities that give the child the provision to be the director of his/her own learning and can gain new knowledge.
Glen and Sturgess(1979) argue that,"without textbook it is difficult to achieve a systematic and coherent course."Textbooks have relevant content to a group of learners.Worth (1984:8) advocates that,"textbooks are aids to the learning process which also depend on individual's work needs and their relationship in the classroom."This means in the textbook the teacher is given relevant information to a specific level of the learners.Content is logically arranged in order to complexity of which teacher has to teach from simple to complex and the order being in textbooks.
Farrant(1980)asserts that a good teacher therefore is one who has a good understanding of what his/her learners need to learn and also of their capabilities for learning .The heads of schools are mandated to supply good reference books for teachers to select information .William ,et al (1990)say that most of primary pupils operate at the concrete stages so selecting content dealing mainly with real environment is seen as a way of enhencing pupils' understandings.William et al also add that pupils are in their immediate environment and these help in harvesting skill development in reading and writing.
Advantages:Haggit (1975)puts that work must involve the whole class on a common theme and must give individual opportunities to give ideas of their own level.
The advantage in this statement is that when pupils are taught the same content they will discuss with each other giving different views to each other .They will understand the content better from the teacher and from other pupils in groups.The teacher needs to be knowledgeable with content of various subjects or materials.

Guidelines and Principles of the Subjects Integration

According to Ausubel and Robinson (1969:169)when integrating ,it is important to apply the principle of integrative reconciliation .This means putting out significant similarities and differences ,to reconcile real or apparent inconsistencies between successive ideas presented in sequential arrangement.This comes about when new knowledge is linked or merged with previously learnt knowledge -hence the need to link concepts in all subjects with what the child might have learnt in life experiences.
Barker(1988)emphasizes that teachers should know why they teach various subjects in the curriculum .He further adds that no one can teach effectively if he does not know why he is teaching the subject.Intergration can be done by teaching language across the curriculum.For example ,comprehension passages can be given where one is dealing with concepts in all subjects. Since language embodies concepts of varying nature ,links with other subjects are necessary.
Once the teacher has the wide view of teaching various subjects and appreciates the need to integrate these subjects ,since all subjects have the philosophical justifications similar to each other.This point was supported by Dearden (1970:90)who says ,teachers should view disciplines as different ways of being critical and diferent ways in which we may be curious ,creative and imaginative.This implies that we can see the world from different points of view ,but should appreciate other people's points of view.
The teacher should let the needs of the children be unifying factor in determining the balance of the curriculum .For example ,pupils enjoy music and games.These can be included in some lesson activities. Makinde in Williams ,further makes it clear that,remembering whether a factor is historical or geographical doesn't matter a bit of the children ,but is important to planners who design the curriculum and increase that knowledge.
Principles of Integration:
•Teachers should view the curriculum in terms of activity and experience and not knowledge and facts to be acquired and stored.
•The methods must include the learner physically,mentally and emotionally.Since learning situations can be linked to poetry,singing ,dancing and games which have aspects appealing to emotional aspects.
•Teachers should teach for concepts and skills development ,not for facts only.Therefore teaching should be for recognition of principles and not for the storage of information.
•Conceptual and skill development can be identified in all subjects using same topics.
•For effective promotion of learning we should aim for the coherent sets of relationships.This would make learners widen their horizons in view of the world and see implications of their learning.
•Teachers should allow the curiosity and free inquiry of pupils to be an integrating factor in their learning.The quality of curiosity should further be extended in all learning activities.
•It is imperative to use real life experiences,problems ,interests,events as basis for lessons.The knowledge should be based on child's experience and linked to the view of the world.Real life situations are not related only to one subject ,but to all disciplines in the curriculum.
•Learning should be the need for the total development of the child in all aspects of life .Children must be morally developed human being with feelings of love ,hate,fear and belonging.
•Bare in mind to mutual link between curriculum balance and the product of the school .If this curriculum is fully integrated ,the school leaver becomes an integrated being.
When integrating the teacher make both teaching and learning easier as the learners can learn and consciously relate concepts in different angles and spheres of community life.

A teacher should promote Questioning Techniques for Skills Development

Why asking questions?:For testing understanding,Reinforcement of information,For motivation to arouse curiosity or ,To encourage independent thinking
Types of Questioning:There are high order questions where people will be forced to think deeply ,reason to explore or analyse.And low order questions just for people to recall.As a teacher have you never count the number of questions you have asked in a class period.Do you know how many questions pupils have asked you in the same lesson.
Questions are statements from which a reply is expected and same questions are answered quickly ,for example "what is your name?"Whilst some maybe answered differently as time passes ,for instance "What do you want to do for your life's sake?"
Whilst questions are tools for instructions requiring different types of responses ,they also confront pupils with challenges when questioned.Questions require demostrations and justfication of knowledge or beliefs.
The responses "I don't know" or "I don't want to answer" are usually not acceptable in the classroom and often pupils feel bad when they fail to respond correctly.
Many times teachers pay attention to recall learning which requires pupils to simply recall information or memorise.They may neglect the higher level of thinking that direct pupils to define or refine relationships between ideas drawn from inference, explaining the facts or to make judgements from the generalisations ,interprete ,analyse,applies to given understanding of new situations and create new ideas ,all of which are necessary for the development of critical thinking .Teachers also avoid effective aspects of learning these are critical for analysing and justifying a way of learning ,which direct pupils to make judgements and consider values ,attitudes ,feelings,interests ,beliefs and motions they have influences of their actions.
There is a growing concern that schools have not been developed citizens that may make reflective decisions on their own right. About those things that concern them and the society at large .They neglect the higher order of thinking and any child can use these different types of thought processes.
Given the opportunity students of all ages to do a study of investigate,analyse and evaluate their environment.But some teachers don't believe that students can reason at different levels of thinking and as such they are not willing to lead them intto thinking in the same way. Similary teachers who don't have experience of using different type of question should rely on easily presented or recalling questions . Such an approach doesn't train the skills of making use of data to solve problems consider values and determine proper actions .
Higher levels of thinking are required if pupils are to solve problems which demand reflective decision making.To develop these skills teachers need to give pupils the opprtunity to think for themselves and by asking and responding to the questions that go beyond recall of information that has been presented to them.
Teachers should also encourage pupils to think critically by guiding them in forming concepts and generalization when developing skills and choosing values that they can use in life ,giving them the freedom to raise questions and interests that concerns them. Hence both teachers and learners make use questions effectively in the education process to help themselves to develop and use critical thinking abilities.
Purposes of questions,in the classroom are used for a number of purposes and the following will help teacher to expand their use of questioning instructions:
♦To develop processes of thinking and guide enquiry in decision making.Acquire and clarify information to answer concerns and develop skills .
♦To determine the knowledge students bring into the classroom so lessons can be made to meet their demands and provide them with motivation of learning which encourages active participation in learning.Pupils to consider new ideas to make use of ideas already made and help to clarify their ideas ,structures of their ideas and learn about new things. Encourage students to ask their own questions .Information from them help to judge their performance and understanding.
♦To provoke students and teachers to share ideas.Challenge their beliefs and guide for reconsiderations or guide reconsideration of values that pupils may know, would help teachers to assess the effectiveness of their teaching profession in the teaching and learning situations.

Questioning Techniques!

Without making use of questions communication and probition of inquery learning become very difficult. In the classroom situation the teacher should use correct questioning techniques to help pupils to learn effectively as their develop their skills essential in life.
Why asking questions?:For testing understanding,reinforcement of information ,for motivation to arouse curiosity or to encourage independent thinking.
Types of Questioning are high order questions where people will be forced to think deeply to reason, explore or analyse.
And the low order questions people will just to recall.
As a teacher have you ever count the number of questions you have asked in a class period.Do you know how many questions pupils have asked you in the same lesson.
Questions are statements from which a reply is expected and some questions are answered quickly ,for example "what is your name?"Whilst some maybe answered differently as time passes ,for instance "What do you want to do for your life's sake?"
Whilst questions are tools for instructions requiring different types of responses ,they also confront pupils with challenges when questioned.Questions require demostrations and justfication of knowledge and beliefs.
The responses "I don't know" or "I don't want to answer" are usually not acceptable in the classroom and often pupils feel bad when they fail to respond correctly.
Many times teachers pay attention to recall learning requires pupils to simply recall information or memorise it.They may neglect the higher level of thinking that direct pupils to define or refine relationships between ideas drawing inference, explaining facts or make judgements from generalisations ,interprete ,analyse,applies given to understanding of new situations and create new ideas ,all of which are necessary for the development of critical thinking .Teachers also avoid effective aspects of learning these are critically analysing and justifying a way of learning ,which directs pupils to make judgements and consider values ,attitudes ,feelings,interests ,beliefs and motions they have influenced of their actions.
There is a growing concern that schools have not been developing citizens that may make reflective decisions on their own,about those things that concern them and the society at large .They neglect the higher order of thinking .Any child can and does use those different types of thoughts processes.
Given the opportunity students of all ages to study ,investgate,analyse and evaluate their environment.But some teachers don't believe that students can reason at different levels of thinking and as such they are not willing to lead their students to thinking in these ways.Similary teachers who have no experience of using different questions should rely on easily presented or recalling.Such an approach doesn't train in the skills of making use of data to solve problems consider values and determine proper actions .
Higher levels of thinking are required if pupils are to solve problems which demand reflective decision making.To develop these skills teachers need to give pupils the opportunity to think for themselves and by asking and responding to the questions that go beyond recall of information that has been presented to them.
Teachers should encourage pupils to think critically by guiding them in forming concepts and generalization of developing skills and choosing values that they can use in life ,giving them the freedom to raise questions , interests and what concern to them, hence pupils and teachers use questions effectively to help pupils develop and use critical thinking abilities.
Purposes of questions in the classroom are used for a number of reasons and the following will help teacher to expand their use of questioning instructions:
•To develop processes of thinking and guide enquiry on decision making.Which acquire and clarify information to answer concerns and develop skills.
•To determine the knowledge students bring into the classroom so lessons can be made to meet their demands and provide them with motivation by encouraging active participation in learning.This lead pupils to consider new ideas to make use of ideas already made and help students clarify their ideas ,structure their ideas and learn about new things.
•Encourage students to ask their own questions and information from peers on which to judge performance and understanding ,this provoke them and their teachers to share ideas, challenge their beliefs and guide reconsideration or guide reconsideration of values that they know.
•To help teachers asses effectiveness of their teaching profession both in questioning and answering techniques.

Common Weaknesses in Questioning in the Teaching and Learning!

Badly formed Questions or vague , very general questions: This kind of questions ,may be no answers at all,or there may be so many possible answers that the questions are not worth asking.For example a teacher in Geography lesson may ask ,"What do we find in the forests?"What the teacher is expecting is snakes.But the repond is multitude of answers such as trees,elephants ,ants,flowers, mouse,rabbits etc.Such a question is usless and hinders rather than helps learning.
Rhetorical questions:These are statements with interrogative phrase like" isn't" or "Don't you think so?" attached to the end.Such questions do not want an answer they only seek approval .They serve no purpose because there is no demand of neither knowledge nor thought from the pupils.
Post script questions:These occur when a teacher has been happily teaching without any questions and suddenly realises he ought to be asking some ,and so tags a question on to the end of his lecture.Perhaps like this."New York is the Capital of USA". "What is the Capital of USA?"Like rhetorical questions ,these require no thought .Their only test is of whether or not the children have been paying attention.
Fill in the blank questions:In their writing form these provide an acceptable kind of test knowledge because they test learning.But in their oral form they are usually a cover for the impatient or lazy teacher who will not take the trouble to formulate his questions carefully .So there come out questions like "When looked at his hands he found they were ... what?" Good questions are such that only the correct answer fit properly.
Repeated Questions: In different ways may confuse children rather than clarify ,what you are after .Children who know that you always ask a question twice soon get into the habit of attending only the second time.Do not think that ,because of the children failed to answer immediately ,they have not heard the question .If it is thought ,provoking one they will need time to think.A little urging may be all they need.
Multiple Questions:Good questions are always simply expressed .If you do not think out your questions before hand ,they tend to grow as you see the problem for different aspects or have to guard against the children getting the wrong idea.This is the kind of question that results"Which of the sons of Jacob did God appoints to be the governor of Egypt and how did he chose him,was his choice dictacted by reason or other means and ,if so how was it done?"
Unlinked Questions:When questioning is uesd as a method of teaching the questions must follow a sequence which makes the answer to the first the starting point to the next and so on.The questions are then linked like sign post directing the pupils along a definite route to a definite destination .Unlinked questions are usually the results of inexperience.They form an illogical assortment consisting of easy and difficult questions which lead no where in particular.
Limited Questions:Some teachers regard questioning as an air man who priortise the parachute for emergency only.They look upon questioning as a help only for times of difficulties as when they run dry for information and ask ,"Has anyone have any question?" They fail to see the questioning technique of teaching and so their questions are few and far from achieving objectives.
Teachers limit the number of children whom they ask questions .They limit their questions either to the children at the front of the class or to those who put up their hands to answer.You need to spread your questions well and see that they make as an interesting challenge to children and give them a sense of achievement when they are well answered.
Its not only teachers who are supposed to ask questions ,even learners can ask questions too.
In regards to questioning in the teaching and learning situation ,take note of these practical suggestions:
•Indicate whether the answer is wrong or right as it is given by a learner.
•Don't answer your own questions ,wait for pupils' answers and let them speak for themselves ,do not make the habit of repeating their answers.
•Make sure the answers are heard by the whole class .It helps if you place yourself as far as possible for those to whom you address the questions so that if you hear their answers and can be also sure that for every one is hearing what is being said anywhere in the classroom.